http://www.eeo.com.cn/observer/special/2007/08/27/81251.shtml
周其仁/文
问题敏感,观察就困难,甚至连搜集到的资料也不便完全公开。本文讨论的内容来自几个方面。首先是《南方周末》王小乔、肖华两位记者的报道,涉及北京小产权房调查,以及广东农民宅基地能否入市的讨论 (见王小乔,《“小产权房”:生命中不能承受之便宜》,《南方周末》2007年7月11日;肖华,《农宅入市,谁为松闸?》,《南方周末》2007年3月 28日)。其次,我自己看过北京的三个小产权房楼盘,并与两位房屋中介做了交谈。然后是前一段到成都考察时的一些相关思考。成都和重庆成为国家城乡协调综合改革区,实践涉及城乡土地问题。此外,从2003-2007年,每年有一次到浙江长兴县的调查机会,其中部分内容与本题有关。最后,一位处理过宅基地和小产权案例的律师写下的文字,对我有很大帮助。总的来说还不是一次系统的调查,只是介绍一些情况,谈一点想法。
直观“小产权”
《南方周末》王小乔报道的北京最大一处“小产权”楼盘,叫太玉园,位于北京六环和京沈高速公路出口附近,离最近的城铁车站不过一公里。新浪网站当时介绍该楼盘:“将成为北京东部地区规模庞大、集别墅、公寓、住宅、步行商业中心、星级酒店为一体的欧式建筑群。到时候,将与世纪城、方庄、望京等大型综合居住区并驾齐驱。总开发面积是2000亩地。”楼盘介绍写明是 “小产权”,价格相当有吸引力:“2700元/平方米起价,均价3000元/平方米,最高3300元/平方米”。本周我在现场问到的是,120平米的户型,每平米3600元。需要注意的是,购房者“必须一次性付款”,因为银行不为“小产权”房提供按揭贷款。这一条件决定了小产权的套间面积不能过大,单套总价不能太高,一次性付款量不能太多。从外观看,太玉园规模相当可观,销售中心设在村委会,开发主体是行政村,相当于人民公社时代的大队。
我首先关心 “原住民”的着落——要是侵犯了农民住户的居住权,那么价格再便宜也是断然不能买的。
据《南方周末》记者调查,该地的老村改造过程中,农民的住宅“正房一对一调换,偏房二对一调换,村里赠送10平米,超出面积按价格600元/平米计算”。这里所谓“一对一”,就是以老宅的一平方米换新宅的一平方米。按此“换率”,原住村民已经全部入住新房,组成现在的张湾村一区。同时,记者还报道,从2006年起,村委会宣布村民中18岁以下独生子女每人每年补贴1000元,18岁以上村民提供粮食补助,50岁以上村民考虑到难以再就业每人每年补贴3600元养老金。就是说,既有旧房换新房,也有货币福利。根据我自己的经验,这类分配关系,调查起来难度不小。不过在新村内,住入楼房的农民们蛮有过日子的样子,在村委会的村民活动中心,看到几桌妇女在打牌、十来个年轻人在打台球,给人的印象至少是没有严重的内部冲突。
接下来要关心的问题,就是购房者究竟可以买到什么样的权利。销售人员给我看,封面印有“镇人民政府监制”的“房屋买卖合同”,其中第十条写明,“乙方购房后对房屋享有永久所有权”。怎么是“永久所有权”?销售人员解释,这是农民的宅基地和农民房,没有“70年批租” 的期限,所以“小产权”房倒是永久的。这样看,“小产权”还不一定真“小”哩!合同还阐明“永久房屋所有权”的含义,就是买家 “依法享有出租、转让、买卖、赠与、继承权利”,并承诺,“甲方为乙方办理入住手续一年内办理完毕房屋产权证”;乙方如产权情况发生变更时,“应到相应的主管部门办理必要的手续并交纳相应的费用”。我问谁是“相应主管部门”?答,就是镇人民政府,办手续则在村委会就可以了。
能不能看房屋产权证?在太玉园售楼处没有找到现成的。但我在海淀另一处小产权楼盘看到了实物:封皮上印有“房屋所有证”字样,中间是国徽图案,下面一行“某某乡人民政府”——所以“小产权”也叫“乡产权”。翻开来,内里写明这是“房屋所有权的合法凭证,买卖、继承、赠与、分割均应于规定期内申办转移登记”;受理机关是乡政府,也可由村代办。我问为什么这张房产证的规格和城里“大产权”房产证一模一样,对方回应,本来就是在同一个地方印的。
究竟“小”在什么地方?
那么“小产权”到底“小”在什么地方?看来不是那个房,而是房产下面的那幅地。按照现行土地用途管制的分类,这幅土地属于“集体建设用地”中的 “宅基地”(建在农业用地上的建筑所在多有,不过本文讨论的是农村建设用地、特别是宅基地上的农民房),也就是9亿农民自用、自建住宅所占用的那些土地。
从宅基地的产权演变历史看,土改以后我国农村的宅基地连同全部其他土地,都是农民的私产。此种私产权利,得到 1954年中华人民共和国宪法的承认和保护。随后,急速推进的农业社会主义改造,从根本上改变了农民私有的土地产权制度。不过,在大规模群众运动中完成的产权集体化改造,产权边界并没有得到清楚而细致的划分。从表达方式看,涉及几亿农民的财产关系大变化,主要依凭的是领袖讲话、指示和政策文件,而并不是法律文本。具体到“宅基地”,在1962年之前甚至连政策文件表达的权利取得、享有、变动和处分的规范都没有。
仅仅由于1959-1961年“共产风”严重侵犯了农民的权利 (包括房产权利),危及整个农村体制以至于国家安定,才使执政党决策层痛定思痛,着手政策调整。1962年中国共产党的八届十中全会通过了 《农村人民公社工作条例修正草案》(即 “人民公社60条”),其实是人民公社化以来第一个厘清农村经济关系的政策文件,也奠定了以后产权关系进一步变化的基础。
《修正草案》涉及农民房地产的有两处。第一处,“生产队范围内的土地,都归生产队所有。生产队所有的土地,包括社员的自留地、自留山、宅基地等等,一律不准出租和买卖”(第21条)。这就是说,农村所有的土地包括农民自用的宅基地,都属“集体”(这个集体的范围,首次被明确为生产队即人民公社的“小队”)所有。不过,这个以队为基础的土地所有权,权能极不完备,因为土地“一律不准出租和买卖”。
但是同一份 《修正草案》的第45条,涉及到农民住房时又规定,“社员的房屋,永远归社员所有。社员有买卖或者租赁房屋的权利。社员出租或者出卖房屋,可以经由中间人评议公平合理的租金或者房价,由买卖或者租赁的双方订立契约。”这就是说,农民的房屋有清楚而完整的产权,不但永远归农民所有,而且既可出租、也可买卖。
麻烦来了。农民拥有对“房产”的永久而完全的所有权,但房产下面的那块“地产”,却不但归“集体”所有,且不得出租和买卖!这应该是产权制度历史上,挑战人类智慧的一道最大难题。试问:当农民转让房产时,是不是也同时转让了那在物理上绝不可分的地产?如果回答是肯定的,那就违背了法律(政策);如果回答是否定的,人们岂不是在处置“悬空寺”?
表达归表达,实际归实际。事实上从1962年以后——也包括1962年以前——农村买卖房产的事情虽不甚普遍,但一直在发生。我的祖母是浙江松阳地方的农村小学校长,上世纪70年代家父接她进城养老,临离开前就把老家的房产卖给了村里人。在祖母之前,同住一村的二伯父去世,也是由二伯母卖掉了家宅远到新疆投亲的。这说明,农民房产的转手,在“习惯法”的框架内,确有其事。“习惯法”里包含着民间的智慧:既然政府允许房产交易而不准地产交易,大家就只买卖房产而不谈地产交易——虽然所有的当事人都心知肚明,房产转手的同时,地产在事实上也转手了。
看来,“小产权”小就小在宅基地的权利界定。按现行体制,宅基地属于集体所有,农民经申报批准可取得、使用,其使用权并无年限的限制。宅基地别无他用,就是用来盖建拥有永久所有权、可出租、也可买卖的农民住宅。但是,作为宅基地的土地本身,却是既不准出租、也不准买卖。按“习惯法”处理,我国农村从来只有房产交易,“没有”地产交易;只对房屋作价,不对宅基地作价。
如此房、地产权分离的体制,深究下去也相当麻烦。比如甲把自己房产卖给了乙,后者的房子不幸着火,那么,谁有权重新建房呢?按习惯,地随房走,乙买得了房,在事实上也就买得了使用那幅土地的相应权利。但照政策本本,甲也可以辩称,当初卖给乙的只是房子,而不是地—— 政策不准卖地——现在乙的房子烧了,地还是甲家的宅基地!
幸亏人民公社时代的口粮、户籍、就业等其他体制束缚着人口流动和迁徙的规模,所以受“人民公社60条”肯定的农民房产转手,绝大多数发生在本地农村内部的亲朋熟人之间,受乡土人情和传统道德的制约。但是,随着改革开放大潮的涌起,长期受压抑的城镇化潜力迅猛释放,中国开始了史无前例的人口大搬迁。由此,原本用以解决农村内部住房的宅基地和农民房的制度,就突然面对一个巨大的外部市场需求。
从统计看,目前全国乡村户籍人口9.4亿,常住人口7.4亿(2005年)。除开一些次要因素,户籍人口与常住人口之差,主要就是从乡村进入城镇的人口。加上城市之间也有大量人口常住在自己户籍以外的地方,当下中国国内移民的总数也许有2-3亿之多。其中相当一部分,就居住在靠近城镇、通常被叫做城乡结合部的农民家里。这就形成了一个巨大的农民房屋出租市场。说全国有上亿移民租用城中、城郊的农民房,应该不是太离谱的估计。
所以,把农民房租给非本村、非本地人口居住,早已经是中国经济生活里的一个普遍现实。从形式看,“租”和“卖”之间从来没有严格的界限。我租用你的房产一个月,还不就等于我“买”到一个月的房屋居住权?一般的习惯,房屋租期越长,租金越一次性支付,“租赁”行为就越靠近 “买卖”行为——无非是不同的转让合同的选择,以适应各种各样的需求。
在普遍的租房行为中,自发地诞生了房屋买卖活动。这就是“小产权”房的由来。真要找到最早的小产权房,恐怕要未来的经济史学家仔细考证后才能知道。1993年我和牛津两位教授到北京大红门外“浙江村”观光,那里最老的租客已近10年。还有京郊那闻名遐尔的画家村,从短租、长租到买断,其实是一条连续的曲线,难以把“租”、“卖”截然分开的。
在法律上,要不要承认、保护、规范农民向城镇居民出租、出售宅基地上农民房的权利,一直悬而未决。国土管理总局(国土资源部前身)、国务院办公厅都曾发文件禁止城镇居民购买农村宅基地及农民房。《物权法》制定过程中对这个问题的争论很大,“草案”里甚至已经写入禁止条款,但最后通过的文本说,“宅基地使用权的取得、行使和转让,适用土地管理法等法律和国家有关规定”。《南方周末》记者肖华写的报道,系统回顾了宅基地问题的来龙去脉。我的看法,无论《土地管理法》还是国家有关土地的其他规定,规范的只是土地,但对宅基地上加盖农民拥有永久而完全所有权的农民房这一 “历史遗留问题”,完全没有清楚的规定。
什么是“大产权”?
其实,改革开放前的我国《宪法》、《土地法》和《刑法》,一律明令禁止土地买卖和租赁。改革开放之初,外资的引入对这种土地制度提出了挑战。外资办厂需用土地,又不能像国有单位那样通过行政划拨来获得。于是,土地不得转让的传统制度在上世纪80年代末发生重要变革。人大常委会专门开会修改宪法,规定国有土地还是不得买卖,但国有土地的使用权可转让。这是从香港学来的经验,即 “土地批租”制度。香港的土地制度来自英国,那里皇家土地也不出售,可是皇家缺钱用的时候却可以把土地使用权批租出去——转让使用权获取现金收益是也。不过英国皇室土地的批租期通常很长,很多合约达999年。香港有回归问题,土地批租期越来越短,后来的截止日大都到1997年7月1日的前三天。内地改土地制度,取来的是香港之“经”,所以定下一个住宅用地70年、工业用地50年、商用地40年的批租年限。这种由政府批租给市场的国有土地转让权,就是所谓 “大产权”。按照现行制度,也只有政府才有权向市场批租国有土地使用权。
连带的一个问题,是国有土地范围的确定。1982年宪法规定“全部城市土地为国有土地”,这是前所未有的,因为历史上、甚至建国以后还存在着城市居民的私房。加上城市化的推进,原来农村的土地——农民集体所有的——被扩大进入城市范围,集体土地就要“变性”,即通过 “征地”的环节,把农民的集体土地强制征用为国有,再由政府批租给市场。《土地管理法》规定规划、征地、以及对征地的补偿标准及其执行,全权在政府。很明显,这是为国家工业化服务的配套土地制度。
原体制由国家垄断工业,所以政府一旦征用农地,可以对农民进行就业安置。后来国企改革,政府不再有能力包办失地农民的就业安置,就改为货币补偿。1997年之前的相关法律规定,征地的货币补偿最高不超过土地原用途年收入的20倍——只限定“最高不超过”,而没有最低补偿的标准——所以理论上,一分钱不补偿也算不得违法,这当然导致各地出现很多征地纠纷,严重侵犯农民利益。纠纷增加是一种社会成本,终究约束了传统“拿地”模式的运行。所以在经验上看,国家征用农地的货币补偿标准一直在不断提升,最新的规定,是保障被征土地的农民生活不能比原来差。
这套“大产权”制度只涵盖国有土地,因为法律只承认国有土地使用权的市场转让权,才可发生相应的批租、投标、交易、办产权证和获得金融机构的抵押。农民的集体土地没有市场转让权,非要先被征用,才谈得上法律承认和保护的、在一定年限内有效的转让权。城市房地产由此而起,不过居民买房后,开始也没人知道70年土地使用权到期后怎么办。这次的《物权法》加了一条,就是居民房地产70年后可“自动续期”——至于续期是不是还要满足其他条件——比如是否像香港一样到时要“补地价”——《物权法》没有交代。那么到时要不要再学香港,还是内地居民更幸运一点,出了70年期的价就等于买到一个永远的土地使用权?这个例子也说明,中国的改革和产权界定有“且打且走”的特色,卡在什么地方了就解决什么问题,实在来不及搞一部可以长治久安的法律。
产权灰色地带
现有土地制度大致可以概括为三句话:农地恒为农地;农地转为非农用必经由国家征用;国有土地使用权可向市场批租。但是,这套制度有一个很大的缺口,那就是9亿农民自用的“农村建设用地”。讲过了,农民不可能住在悬空寺里,在他们的宅基地周围,通常还有大小不等的院子和辅助性用地,而村落也总要有道路、桥梁、晒场和其他用地,外加多年以来农村大办乡村企业占用的土地,全国农村建设用地的总量可不是一个小数目。有报道说,2005年底,我国农村建设用地共有16.4万平方公里,接近河南省国土总面积,等于全部城市建设用地的4.6倍!
农村建设用地本是“自用”的。就是说,划分了使用权、而此种使用权并没有发展为收益权和转让权。不过,如上所述,产权的权利发展并没有逾越不了的鸿沟。经验到处是一致的:只要资源他用带来比自用更高的收益,“自己的”使用权总会以这样或那样的方式,演化为转让权,并经由转让来获得更高的收益。
工业化的突飞猛进,带来农村工业用地收益流的增加。于是,把“农村建设用地”转让给工业家的做法开始流行。我在 2004年的研究中观察过两种形式,其一是南海以集体土地入股来使本地农民分享外来投资企业的利润;其二是昆山的做法,就是先把闲散地垦复成农地,然后据此申请建设用地,由农民投标盖建标准厂房,并出租给急需工业用地和厂房的台资企业。在江苏、上海、浙江、广东、湖南和安徽,我们都见过类似的做法,就是农村建设用地经由转让和交易——而不再是征用——为“世界工厂”提供工业用地支持。
“小产权”应运而生的经济根源,则是近年城市房价急升的形势。政府的道道房地产调控金牌——无论是国六条、国八条、还是那声名远扬的90平米限额管制——不但没有如公众期望的那样“稳定房价”、反而房价一再走高。在这种情况下,大都市近郊的农民和他们的“集体”,既无暇看热闹、更无心看政府笑话。他们只是感觉到,继续“自用”宅基地连同其上的农民房,机会成本急速地上升了。他们不过朴素地作出了反应:把宅基地连同农民房的使用权上升为转让权,在较高收益机会的指引下,尝试寻找把土地自用转让他用的实践道路。
2004年国务院下发“关于深化改革严格土地管理的决定”(28号文件),其中第10条说,“在符合规划的前提下,村庄、集镇、建制镇中的农民集体所有建设用地使用权可以依法流转”。依我所知,这是1962年“人民公社60条”关于保护房屋转让、但禁止土地转让的政策规定以来,第一次向“房、地一致”方向的正确改进。问题是,文中所说“依法转让”的那个“法”,迄今为止依然付之阙如。只有大趋势是清楚的:在相对价格急遽变动的压力下,农民的地产和房产权利,正逐渐在原本灰色的空间里变得清晰起来,并要求正式的法律表达。
应该是个大机会
《南方周末》的报道用了一个小标题,“比经济适用房更经济”。这句话来自小产权房的广告词,不过并非虚假信息。北京城五环以内已经不见均价低于每平米万元的大产权楼盘,对比之下,小产权房每平方米2000-3000元,着实比供不应求的经济适用房更经济。据报道,仅北京开盘的小产权楼盘就有80处,约占全部市场楼盘的20%、商品房套数的30%。
这对购房人来说当然是一个难得的机会。问过小产权房的售楼人员,买小产权房的大体分三类:一是退休老人,相中大城市近郊的生活费便宜、空气好,蔬菜新鲜,而只要有公交线路,回城时间长对他们也不可怕;二是年轻的上班族,起早赶晚非常辛苦,不过总算有了自己买得起的物业;三是投资户,买了房用于出租的。无论哪一族,在目前的大产权房市上都没有机会,才选了小产权来圆他们的梦。
如果没有小产权房供市,大城市房价的走势会怎么样?常识说,一定会更高!这里有一个枝节妨碍人们 “看见”这一点。这就是目前的房价指数全部基于大产权房价的信息,所以在“均价”里并不包括小产权房的成交价格。所以,现在官方公布的搅民心弦的房价指数,比实际状况是偏高了的。不需要复杂的分析,凡是在小产权房里满足了购房愿望的人,一时退出购房的“需求”阵营,怎么样也是缓解实际房价上涨的力量。
这就是说,小产权供市的行为,与政府几年来宣布的稳定房价上涨幅度的调控目标是一致的。从这点看,小产权应该也给政府提供了一个机会,也就是借助自发的产权演进力量,来减少房价越调控越高涨的尴尬。经验已经显示,有什么样的产权界定就有什么样的“市场”及市场的表现。那些断言 “市场化不能解决房地产问题”的人,不过是对我国由政府垄断一级土地市场的权利状况及其逻辑后果,缺少认识而已。
在这个意义上,政府主管部门及其官员对小产权问题的反应,多少出人意外。报道说,建设部官员高调披露了“小产权得不到法律保护”的“风险”——难道他真以为在市场里出了真金白银的买主,还需要他来提点小产权的政策风险吗?倘若没有这类人为的、体制性的风险,同一地段、类似质量的小产权房凭什么就比大产权房要每平米便宜几千元?中国人连“拾来的金子市价卖”这样的传统智慧也不懂了吗?至于法律是不是保护的问题,留给人民代表大会的发言人来宣布,留给法官来判定,是不是更接近于 “法治社会”呢?
媒体也大字报道了北京市国土局长“停建停售”的禁令。想不通为什么这么蠢。拿来仔细阅读,原来人家讲的是“查明违规停建停售”。不过,局长也没有多讲一句,“查明合规,颁发权证”!真是的,上有前引国务院文件,下有市场和人心,千载难逢的青史留名机会,就这么白白放过了,可惜不可惜?
比较起来,国土资源部一位副部长的应答,个人认为最为得体。他的大意是说,集体建设用地流转的情况非常复杂,正在调查研究。这就有“看一看”的意思了。说起来,这也是早期中国改革屡试不爽的成功招数,凡利益复杂、看法分歧的事情,先搁置争议,试试、看看再定夺。反正有一点靠得住,凡具备长久合理性的做法,一定很“耐看”就是了。贸然断言“不”,万一也是一条行得通的路,到哪里买后悔药?
央视国际7月19日新闻60分节目报道“济南连续拆除‘野楼盘’”,炸楼的画面让我有不祥之感。很传神的称谓,当地人把小产权叫做“野楼盘”。既然“野”,也许就可以野对野了:但见几座6层建筑轰然倒地、激起粉尘一片。不要这样吧——当然有技术隐患、住了可能塌楼伤人的除外。毕竟是人民内部矛盾,总有更和谐的处理办法。再说,要是执法官员读过 “人民公社60条”,就是一定要以炸示法,似乎也只可以炸地、而不能炸楼呀。太平世界的,万一炸出个本·拉登来,算谁的?
不是说要鼓励违规行为。区区在下一个教书的,鼓励什么、反对什么,皆无足轻重。重要的是经济现象背后必有规律,这么大范围内以不同形式发生的行为,总有几分“道理”——不是一定就天然合理,而是说必有内在的因果关系。我所看到的是,正是土地法规的含糊和权利界定不清,才诱发了大量的“违规行为”。土地资源是人类社会必定要利用的最基础性的资源,没有一整套清楚界定使用、收益、转让的产权制度,怎么样也是摆不平、对付不过去的。
所以还不是利用小产权房平抑房价这样的权宜之计。“小产权”的挑战包含一个大机会,就是根本改革早已不适合社会主义市场经济要求的土地流转制度。改革开放以来,农地的包产到户奠定了农民家庭长久承包农地的权利,城市国有土地则经由批租方式形成了一个市场。惟独原农地 ——包括农业用地和农村建设用地——一旦转为非农地,还仅仅只有国家征地这华山一条路。要清楚地看到,目前城市化的绝大多数用地项目,都是商业性、经营性的,仍然沿用“为了公共利益”政府就强征拿地的传统模式,已经没有任何道理了。政府又可以向竞争的市场独家卖地,其实是把政府自己放到了一个与民争利的危险地位,其最大的代价就是政府难以履行本只有政府才能履行的公共服务职能。
无数的纠纷、冲突、贪渎事件围绕土地展开,这不是偶然的现象。国土主管部门不断宣布土地案件查不胜查,恰恰说明现行土地制度的运行成本早已经高不可攀。与想象的不同,靠行政审批和监管权来替代自下而上的土地产权、特别是土地转让权,越来越带不来“便宜的”城市化,反而显出这套过时的经济制度的昂贵无比。我的看法,当下又一轮地价暴涨,贵的不是土地本身,而是现行的土地制度。
最大的体制症结,就是政府既当政府、又当惟一的“批地地主”。这不能不使土地资源的配置在某种程度上屈从于行政指令和长官意志,在急速的城市化进程中造成难以避免、更难以承受的浪费和资源误配置。在民主和法治远不健全的现实条件下,也根本做不到公正地分配史无前例上涨的土地地租。结果,政府扮不好“地主”角色,也演不好政府的角色。审时度势,改革国家工业化时代留下的土地流转制度,此其时也。对于横在中国制度变革道路上回避不了的任务,早攻坚,早收益;拖下去,受害无穷。可行的第一步,就是顺势承认农地进入城市一级土地市场的合法权利,打破土地流转的政府独家行政垄断。
这是历史性的大机会。从2004年发表“农地产权与征地制度”以来,我自己一直这样看 (见 《产权与制度变迁》(增订本)周其仁,2004,北京大学出版社)。不过,对中国能不能很快主动抓住这个机会,不敢有乐观的估计。关键还是政府充当独家地主的既得利益,实在过于巨大。加上对土地流转权的莫名恐惧和重重错误观念,一再妨碍中国抓住土地制度变迁机会。某种进不得、退不成局面,也许可能出现。见怪不怪,当年席卷神州的包产到户,其实也是从“小产权”开始的。从1956下半年浙江永嘉第一波包产到户算起,到2002年全国人大通过《农地承包法》,先后费时共46年。非农地流转权的界定远比农地承包复杂,因此我们有理由对这场伟大的制度变迁,继续耐心地拭目以待。
(作者为北京大学和长江商学院教授。本文是作者在北京大学中国经济研究中心第十次中国经济观察论坛上的发言(2007年7月29日),文字稿经作者修订和补充)
Saturday, May 8, 2010
Sunday, April 4, 2010
扬州新建小区将拆迁 政府偷偷卖地业主不知情
http://finance.ifeng.com/news/house/20100405/2008658.shtml
就个人住房来说:风能进、雨能进、国王不能进。这样的说法形象说明了个人财产不容公权力任意侵犯。中华人民共和国宪法第十三条规定:公民的合法的私有财产不受侵犯。中华人民共和国物权法第六十六条明确规定:私人的合法财产受法律保护,禁止任何单位和个人侵占、哄抢、破坏。在江苏扬州,有这样两个小区,业主们买了房好好住着没几年,却突然被告诉说房子马上就要拆了,手中的土地使用权证即将成为废纸一张。这好好的房子,怎么说拆就要拆?土地使用权证怎么说没就没了?
陌生人突然来访
今年72岁的熊锡梅家住江苏省扬州市渡江西苑小区。平时,女儿女婿上班,外孙上学,她就独自在家里做做家务,日子过得宁静、平和。今年三月初的一天上午,几位陌生人突然来访,让老人受到不小的惊吓。来者说要量房子,开始评估了。熊锡梅说,他们没有手续,没有证件,没有出通知,孩子们也没有向她交代过这件事,假如是坏人怎么办?害怕得很。所以当时就没有让他们进屋。
当天上午,这些人也敲开了二楼李秀兰家的房门。他们声称要对房屋进行评估,因为小区马上就要拆迁了。李秀兰感到很吃惊。
渡江西苑建成于2002年,共有两栋商品住宅楼,使用时间满打满算还不到8年。40多户业主入住时间大部分只有5、6年,时间最短的还不到三年。听说要拆迁,他们一开始根本不相信。
一墙之隔的福运苑小区30多户业主也接到了拆迁通知。这个小区建成于2003年,使用时间更短。一些住户刚刚装修完,还没来得及入住。一位业主说,装修花了二十万左右,房子质量相当好,拆了不是白白浪费吗?
土地使用权被二次出让
据业主们介绍,这两个小区的规划、土地等各项手续一应俱全,好端端的房子怎能说拆就拆呢?为了弄清缘由,业主们开始四处打听。业主们在扬州土地市场网上看到了这样一则信息:今年2月11日,序号为590号的地块以每亩 250万元的价格挂牌出让给一家房地产公司,该地块总面积达900多亩,范围涵盖渡江西苑、福运苑两个小区。也就是说,早在20多天前,这两个小区70多户业主的土地使用权已经被扬州市政府卖了出去。
这则信息让业主们非常震惊。业主们告诉记者,各家各户都有土地使用证,有业主拿出土地使用证给记者看。土地使用证上注明土地使用性质是出让,使用期是七十年,有政府的章。业主问:“土地出让以后,能不能第二次出让?第二次出让侵犯不侵犯业主的权利?”“这样做,公民的财产怎么得到保护?”
出让,不可能让家家户户都知道?
为了解情况,记者来到扬州市国土资源局,采访了土地利用处处长卞广骥。卞处长说,这次出让的地块位于新老城区结合地带,为了提高城市的品位,扬州市政府决定以挂牌出让的方式,引进开发商对该地块进行旧城改造。卞处长说,对于这次出让,他们早在去年年底就在国土局网站、江苏土地市场网发布拍买公告。
记者了解到,扬州市国土资源局在网上发布的公告其实是土地招商公告。对于这些只发布在专业网站上的招商公告,除了关注当地土地市场行情的开发商,作为普通公众的业主会有多少人关注、能有多少人知情呢?
卞处长解释说,“不可能每家每户都能够知道,这个也不可能做到”,“我们在网站发布公告,应该就是已经对社会的公告了”。
“这种做法,不止一个地方政府在做”
看来,土地使用权被挂牌出让,自己却不知情,业主们只能责怪自己了。不过,话又说回来,就算他们全都知情,国土资源局能否据此就将已经卖给业主的土地使用权拿到市场再卖上一次呢?
从法律上讲,拍买应该先要收回土地使用权。对于收回土地使用权的程序,国土资源部、财政部、人民银行等部门颁布的《土地储备管理办法》有明确规定:因旧城改造需要调整使用土地的,应由土地管理部门依法对土地使用权人给予补偿,在补偿之后才能收回土地使用权。
记者调查发现,此前,没有任何人与业主商量补偿的事情,没有贴公告,也没开听证会。就这样,扬州市国土资源局没有按照规定给予业主们补偿的情况下,就收回业主们土地使用权,拿到市场上进行重新挂牌出让。这种做法不仅不合情理,也违反了国家的法律制度。对此,卞处长是这样解释的:“土地招拍挂确实有这种做法,据我了解还不止是一个地方在做。从政府应该来讲呢,以社会效益为主。”
对于这次土地使用权的违法出让,卞处长认为这是土地招、拍、挂工作中的通行做法,是着眼于社会效益。那么,这个社会效益指的是什么呢?
据卞处长介绍,渡江西苑这个地块将用来建普通商品房。拆除几年前刚刚建成的普通商品房,重建的仍然是普通商品房。对此,业主们感到十分不解,认为这是社会资源的浪费。
据了解,这次出让的900多亩土地位于扬州市正在开发的古运河风光带南岸,在当地是难得的黄金地段,商业潜力巨大。按照新的规划,土地出让后,开发商将主要进行商品房、商铺等商业项目的开发。扬州市政府因此获得了20多亿元的土地出让金,而渡江西苑、福运苑两个小区的业主大都是工薪阶层,为了买这里的房子,有的花光了两代人的积蓄,有的至今没有还清银行的贷款。他们本以为可以安居乐业,没想到事与愿违。他们说,“我们经不起折腾了”。
“我们经不起折腾了”。这种无奈,听着让人心酸、让人感慨。个人财产不容侵犯,这是宪法、物权法明确规定的法律原则,在地方却被无情践踏。土地还没收回居然就敢拍卖,这和拿着别人的东西卖钱有什么不同呢?如果政府确实要为公共利益而提前收回土地,也应本着“先补偿,后收回”的程序,依法办事。再者,老百姓辛辛苦苦攒钱买房,第一次购房,地方政府已经从房子下面的土地转让中赚了钱;没几年,房子被拆掉还是建商品住房,而房子下的土地二次转让,政府又赚了钱。可老百姓却来回被折腾,利益被侵害。节目中那些百姓的要求既合法又合理,无非就是“安居乐业,不要折腾。”可政府在做关系这么多人利益的决策时却如此轻松随意。更让人不安的是,这种事情在全国还具有一定的普遍性,并非个案。这怎么能让老百姓安居乐业?
就个人住房来说:风能进、雨能进、国王不能进。这样的说法形象说明了个人财产不容公权力任意侵犯。中华人民共和国宪法第十三条规定:公民的合法的私有财产不受侵犯。中华人民共和国物权法第六十六条明确规定:私人的合法财产受法律保护,禁止任何单位和个人侵占、哄抢、破坏。在江苏扬州,有这样两个小区,业主们买了房好好住着没几年,却突然被告诉说房子马上就要拆了,手中的土地使用权证即将成为废纸一张。这好好的房子,怎么说拆就要拆?土地使用权证怎么说没就没了?
陌生人突然来访
今年72岁的熊锡梅家住江苏省扬州市渡江西苑小区。平时,女儿女婿上班,外孙上学,她就独自在家里做做家务,日子过得宁静、平和。今年三月初的一天上午,几位陌生人突然来访,让老人受到不小的惊吓。来者说要量房子,开始评估了。熊锡梅说,他们没有手续,没有证件,没有出通知,孩子们也没有向她交代过这件事,假如是坏人怎么办?害怕得很。所以当时就没有让他们进屋。
当天上午,这些人也敲开了二楼李秀兰家的房门。他们声称要对房屋进行评估,因为小区马上就要拆迁了。李秀兰感到很吃惊。
渡江西苑建成于2002年,共有两栋商品住宅楼,使用时间满打满算还不到8年。40多户业主入住时间大部分只有5、6年,时间最短的还不到三年。听说要拆迁,他们一开始根本不相信。
一墙之隔的福运苑小区30多户业主也接到了拆迁通知。这个小区建成于2003年,使用时间更短。一些住户刚刚装修完,还没来得及入住。一位业主说,装修花了二十万左右,房子质量相当好,拆了不是白白浪费吗?
土地使用权被二次出让
据业主们介绍,这两个小区的规划、土地等各项手续一应俱全,好端端的房子怎能说拆就拆呢?为了弄清缘由,业主们开始四处打听。业主们在扬州土地市场网上看到了这样一则信息:今年2月11日,序号为590号的地块以每亩 250万元的价格挂牌出让给一家房地产公司,该地块总面积达900多亩,范围涵盖渡江西苑、福运苑两个小区。也就是说,早在20多天前,这两个小区70多户业主的土地使用权已经被扬州市政府卖了出去。
这则信息让业主们非常震惊。业主们告诉记者,各家各户都有土地使用证,有业主拿出土地使用证给记者看。土地使用证上注明土地使用性质是出让,使用期是七十年,有政府的章。业主问:“土地出让以后,能不能第二次出让?第二次出让侵犯不侵犯业主的权利?”“这样做,公民的财产怎么得到保护?”
出让,不可能让家家户户都知道?
为了解情况,记者来到扬州市国土资源局,采访了土地利用处处长卞广骥。卞处长说,这次出让的地块位于新老城区结合地带,为了提高城市的品位,扬州市政府决定以挂牌出让的方式,引进开发商对该地块进行旧城改造。卞处长说,对于这次出让,他们早在去年年底就在国土局网站、江苏土地市场网发布拍买公告。
记者了解到,扬州市国土资源局在网上发布的公告其实是土地招商公告。对于这些只发布在专业网站上的招商公告,除了关注当地土地市场行情的开发商,作为普通公众的业主会有多少人关注、能有多少人知情呢?
卞处长解释说,“不可能每家每户都能够知道,这个也不可能做到”,“我们在网站发布公告,应该就是已经对社会的公告了”。
“这种做法,不止一个地方政府在做”
看来,土地使用权被挂牌出让,自己却不知情,业主们只能责怪自己了。不过,话又说回来,就算他们全都知情,国土资源局能否据此就将已经卖给业主的土地使用权拿到市场再卖上一次呢?
从法律上讲,拍买应该先要收回土地使用权。对于收回土地使用权的程序,国土资源部、财政部、人民银行等部门颁布的《土地储备管理办法》有明确规定:因旧城改造需要调整使用土地的,应由土地管理部门依法对土地使用权人给予补偿,在补偿之后才能收回土地使用权。
记者调查发现,此前,没有任何人与业主商量补偿的事情,没有贴公告,也没开听证会。就这样,扬州市国土资源局没有按照规定给予业主们补偿的情况下,就收回业主们土地使用权,拿到市场上进行重新挂牌出让。这种做法不仅不合情理,也违反了国家的法律制度。对此,卞处长是这样解释的:“土地招拍挂确实有这种做法,据我了解还不止是一个地方在做。从政府应该来讲呢,以社会效益为主。”
对于这次土地使用权的违法出让,卞处长认为这是土地招、拍、挂工作中的通行做法,是着眼于社会效益。那么,这个社会效益指的是什么呢?
据卞处长介绍,渡江西苑这个地块将用来建普通商品房。拆除几年前刚刚建成的普通商品房,重建的仍然是普通商品房。对此,业主们感到十分不解,认为这是社会资源的浪费。
据了解,这次出让的900多亩土地位于扬州市正在开发的古运河风光带南岸,在当地是难得的黄金地段,商业潜力巨大。按照新的规划,土地出让后,开发商将主要进行商品房、商铺等商业项目的开发。扬州市政府因此获得了20多亿元的土地出让金,而渡江西苑、福运苑两个小区的业主大都是工薪阶层,为了买这里的房子,有的花光了两代人的积蓄,有的至今没有还清银行的贷款。他们本以为可以安居乐业,没想到事与愿违。他们说,“我们经不起折腾了”。
“我们经不起折腾了”。这种无奈,听着让人心酸、让人感慨。个人财产不容侵犯,这是宪法、物权法明确规定的法律原则,在地方却被无情践踏。土地还没收回居然就敢拍卖,这和拿着别人的东西卖钱有什么不同呢?如果政府确实要为公共利益而提前收回土地,也应本着“先补偿,后收回”的程序,依法办事。再者,老百姓辛辛苦苦攒钱买房,第一次购房,地方政府已经从房子下面的土地转让中赚了钱;没几年,房子被拆掉还是建商品住房,而房子下的土地二次转让,政府又赚了钱。可老百姓却来回被折腾,利益被侵害。节目中那些百姓的要求既合法又合理,无非就是“安居乐业,不要折腾。”可政府在做关系这么多人利益的决策时却如此轻松随意。更让人不安的是,这种事情在全国还具有一定的普遍性,并非个案。这怎么能让老百姓安居乐业?
Tuesday, March 2, 2010
China's Localities Feel Pinch of Tighter Credit
http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052748703494404575080781608149758.html
(some images are not displaying properly in this post. Please check the link listed above for the original article)
By ANDREW BATSON
BEIJING—China's local governments, which ran up huge debts during the record-breaking lending spree of the past year, are now feeling the pinch as authorities in Beijing tighten credit.
Off-balance-sheet borrowing by cities, counties and provinces helped finance a wave of public-works construction last year that contributed to the nation's growth. Now regulators in Beijing, worried that local governments won't be able to pay back all their loans, are increasing their scrutiny of this kind of debt.
View Full Image
Associated Press
A construction worker welds at subway construction site in Shanghai last month.
That's likely to constrain the number of infrastructure projects that local governments launch this year, meaning a smaller boost to the economy as the nation's stimulus program enters its second year. The lion's share of that stimulus consists not of government funding but enormous lending by state banks.
"While tighter credit is unlikely to affect most ongoing investment projects, especially since many stocked up on financing in 2009, local governments will have their work cut out to start new projects this year," said Stephen Green, an economist for Standard Chartered in Shanghai.
Estimates of the total debt accumulated by investment vehicles set up by local governments range from six trillion yuan (around $878 billion) widely cited in the Chinese media, to the 11 trillion yuan calculated by Northwestern University professor Victor Shih. Those sums—on the same order of magnitude as all the official debt of China's central government—have drawn high-level concern.
"If this is handled poorly it could result in local government financing platforms being unable to repay their debts, creating bad assets for banks and other problems," central bank Gov. Zhou Xiaochuan warned in January.
Liu Mingkang, China's chief bank regulator, followed up in a nationwide conference call with bank executives on Jan. 26, telling them to "fully assess and effectively guard against risks from local government financing platforms."
The Shanghai Securities News reported Wednesday, citing unnamed sources, that banks had been ordered to stop issuing new loans to investment vehicles that are backed only by local governments' future revenue and have no registered capital.
Several Chinese banks contacted Wednesday didn't respond to queries about such lending.
Although local governments in China are generally prohibited from going into debt, most manage to circumvent the law by setting up their own companies to do the borrowing. Supported by land holdings and the promises of officials, such firms found plenty of obliging banks during the recent lending spree. And with most tax revenue going to central government coffers in Beijing, local agencies had no other way of paying for the new railroads,bridges and dams called for in the national stimulus. plan.
The central government has taken several steps to slow down new bank lending this year. Amid the more risk-averse atmosphere, local government companies no longer are favored customers. The country's largest bank, Industrial & Commercial Bank of China, said this month it will "strictly manage" lending to "urban infrastructure projects carried out by local government fundraising platforms."
Local capital markets are also becoming less welcoming. In 2009, domestic bond issues by municipal investment companies totaled 121.2 billion yuan, according to the National Development and Reform Commission, double the pace of previous years. But these bond issues have already fallen off from their peak in early-2009, and could slow further.
Regulators have raised the bar for new bond applications by companies linked to lower-level governments with weaker finances, a person familiar with the situation said. However, the central government is still processing applications for bond issues from these companies, as there is a backlog from last year. "The government isn't shutting down the bond market," this person said. "But there is a growing awareness of credit risk."
The NDRC declined to comment, and the Ministry of Finance didn't respond to a request for comment.
Local governments' plans for the year appear to have factored in a tighter fundraising environment. The Wall Street Journal examined the government work reports for 2010 that China's 31 provinces have published over the past two months. Of the 28 provinces that announced a formal target for investment growth this year, 26 are aiming for lower growth in 2010 than in 2009; the remaining two want to keep growth steady. On average, the provinces are targeting an increase in investment for 2010 that is 11 percentage points below what they achieved in 2009.
Curbing local governments' reliance on off-balance-sheet debt isn't a simple task, because they face real financial pressures. For now, some local officials seem willing to accept the central government's tougher line. "We will standardize all varieties of government financing platforms, and focus on preventing financial risks," Shandong Gov. Jiang Daming said in a January speech. Others are still reluctant: Guangxi Gov. Ma Biao said in a speech that he will "give full play to the role of investment financing platforms and expand the scale of fundraising."
The central government's concern is understandable, since it will ultimately have to pick up the tab for any debts the local governments can't sort out themselves. "Beijing is still responsible for the debt risk of local governments, and they are not allowed to go bankrupt under any circumstances,"Xu Lin, director of the fiscal and financial affairs department of the NDRC, wrote in a recent article.
Write to Andrew Batson at andrew.batson@wsj.com
(some images are not displaying properly in this post. Please check the link listed above for the original article)
By ANDREW BATSON
BEIJING—China's local governments, which ran up huge debts during the record-breaking lending spree of the past year, are now feeling the pinch as authorities in Beijing tighten credit.
Off-balance-sheet borrowing by cities, counties and provinces helped finance a wave of public-works construction last year that contributed to the nation's growth. Now regulators in Beijing, worried that local governments won't be able to pay back all their loans, are increasing their scrutiny of this kind of debt.
View Full Image
Associated Press
A construction worker welds at subway construction site in Shanghai last month.
That's likely to constrain the number of infrastructure projects that local governments launch this year, meaning a smaller boost to the economy as the nation's stimulus program enters its second year. The lion's share of that stimulus consists not of government funding but enormous lending by state banks.
"While tighter credit is unlikely to affect most ongoing investment projects, especially since many stocked up on financing in 2009, local governments will have their work cut out to start new projects this year," said Stephen Green, an economist for Standard Chartered in Shanghai.
Estimates of the total debt accumulated by investment vehicles set up by local governments range from six trillion yuan (around $878 billion) widely cited in the Chinese media, to the 11 trillion yuan calculated by Northwestern University professor Victor Shih. Those sums—on the same order of magnitude as all the official debt of China's central government—have drawn high-level concern.
"If this is handled poorly it could result in local government financing platforms being unable to repay their debts, creating bad assets for banks and other problems," central bank Gov. Zhou Xiaochuan warned in January.
Liu Mingkang, China's chief bank regulator, followed up in a nationwide conference call with bank executives on Jan. 26, telling them to "fully assess and effectively guard against risks from local government financing platforms."
The Shanghai Securities News reported Wednesday, citing unnamed sources, that banks had been ordered to stop issuing new loans to investment vehicles that are backed only by local governments' future revenue and have no registered capital.
Several Chinese banks contacted Wednesday didn't respond to queries about such lending.
Although local governments in China are generally prohibited from going into debt, most manage to circumvent the law by setting up their own companies to do the borrowing. Supported by land holdings and the promises of officials, such firms found plenty of obliging banks during the recent lending spree. And with most tax revenue going to central government coffers in Beijing, local agencies had no other way of paying for the new railroads,bridges and dams called for in the national stimulus. plan.
The central government has taken several steps to slow down new bank lending this year. Amid the more risk-averse atmosphere, local government companies no longer are favored customers. The country's largest bank, Industrial & Commercial Bank of China, said this month it will "strictly manage" lending to "urban infrastructure projects carried out by local government fundraising platforms."
Local capital markets are also becoming less welcoming. In 2009, domestic bond issues by municipal investment companies totaled 121.2 billion yuan, according to the National Development and Reform Commission, double the pace of previous years. But these bond issues have already fallen off from their peak in early-2009, and could slow further.
Regulators have raised the bar for new bond applications by companies linked to lower-level governments with weaker finances, a person familiar with the situation said. However, the central government is still processing applications for bond issues from these companies, as there is a backlog from last year. "The government isn't shutting down the bond market," this person said. "But there is a growing awareness of credit risk."
The NDRC declined to comment, and the Ministry of Finance didn't respond to a request for comment.
Local governments' plans for the year appear to have factored in a tighter fundraising environment. The Wall Street Journal examined the government work reports for 2010 that China's 31 provinces have published over the past two months. Of the 28 provinces that announced a formal target for investment growth this year, 26 are aiming for lower growth in 2010 than in 2009; the remaining two want to keep growth steady. On average, the provinces are targeting an increase in investment for 2010 that is 11 percentage points below what they achieved in 2009.
Curbing local governments' reliance on off-balance-sheet debt isn't a simple task, because they face real financial pressures. For now, some local officials seem willing to accept the central government's tougher line. "We will standardize all varieties of government financing platforms, and focus on preventing financial risks," Shandong Gov. Jiang Daming said in a January speech. Others are still reluctant: Guangxi Gov. Ma Biao said in a speech that he will "give full play to the role of investment financing platforms and expand the scale of fundraising."
The central government's concern is understandable, since it will ultimately have to pick up the tab for any debts the local governments can't sort out themselves. "Beijing is still responsible for the debt risk of local governments, and they are not allowed to go bankrupt under any circumstances,"Xu Lin, director of the fiscal and financial affairs department of the NDRC, wrote in a recent article.
Write to Andrew Batson at andrew.batson@wsj.com
中国地方政府负债超5万亿 面临严重债务危机
http://www.ibtimes.com.cn/articles/20100302/yanghang-zhaiwuweiji.htm
来源:中国经济周刊
2010年03月02日09:05
《中国经济周刊》记者 叶建国 谈佳隆 王红茹 刘永刚/北京报道
唯一可以确定的就是“不确定”,而最大的风险也是不确定。
这句听起来有些绕口的话,用来形容目前地方政府所面临的债务危机似乎颇为合适。
2010年1月19日,在国务院第四次全体会议上,国务院总理温家宝把“尽快制定规范地方融资平台的措施,防范潜在财政风险”列入今年宏观政策方面重点抓好的工作之一。
这引发了各界对于我国地方债务情况的关注。过去半年来,中国人民银行、银监会、保监会、财政部、审计署等纷纷对各地方政府“负债”问题发出过警告。决策层开始担心,地方债务问题可能会成为4万亿元投资和9.6万亿元银行天量信贷的后遗症,并危及中国经济的安全。
遗憾的是,直到目前,尚没有任何一项权威的统计对地方政府的负债数字进行发布。
本刊记者目前获得的统计数据包括:央行的统计显示,截至2009年5月末,全国地方政府的负债超过5万亿元;财政部财政科学研究所所长贾康的估算是,目前我国地方投融资平台负债超过6万亿元,其中地方债务总余额在4万亿元以上,约相当于GDP的16.5%,财政收入的80.2%,地方财政收入的174.6%;国务院发展研究中心金融所副所长巴曙松亦认为,2009年地方政府的投融资平台的负债总规模已经超过了地方政府全年的总财政收入。
更现实的情况是,在国务院有关部门发出警示和市场投资主体做出谨慎判断的双重背景下,本已经负重前行的地方投融资体系正遭遇更大困境。
如此巨额的地方债务将如何通过技术化的政策手段进行化解?对于被很多地方政府奉为圭臬的地方投融资平台的功过和成败又将如何评价?
这些讨论,直接关乎新一轮的国家财税体制改革。在分税制推行了16年以后,新一轮围绕我国财税体制改革的争论或将在地方财政遭遇严重危机的背景下激烈展开,围绕新一轮财税体制改革的中央与地方博弈也已经开始。
投融资平台的身世
——地方财政困境下的市场化出路
巨额债务引发的喧嚣,其前身是始终存在的对地方投融资平台的争论。
这牵涉到对政府投融资体系的理解。所谓政府投融资是指政府为实现一定的产业政策和财政政策目标, 在不以盈利为直接目的的前提下, 通过信用方式筹集和使用资金, 采取直接或间接方式投入经济建设的一种活动。
一般来说,政府投融资具有三个特征:一是有偿性和公共性;二是兼有金融性和财政性;三是灵活性。政府投融资不同于财政预算,它是根据财政政策的需要和经济建设的需要进行的信用活动,可以按照建设任务具体情况实行不同的投融资方式。
十一届三中全会以来,特别是十五大以来,随着市场经济的发展和完善、国企改革的不断深入、多种经济形式的发展和资本市场的发育,我国投融资体制的改革始终围绕着两条主线:一是逐步认可并推进市场对资源配置的作用;二是逐步推进投资决策权的分散,由中央到地方、由单一主体到多元化主体。
与此同时,我国城市化进程开始进入稳定快速发展阶段,加速城市基础设施建设对于改善居民生活水平和吸引产业集群、促进城市经济发展水平有着重要作用。但限于改革开放初期的中国政府投融资体系的非市场化背景,早期的城市基础设施建设均依靠于财政的直接投入,资金来源除国家划拨资金外,主要来源于地方财政收入,这就导致资金来源与快速增长的投资需求难以适应。
1988 年,国务院发布了《关于投资管理体制的近期改革方案》,政府的投融资体系由单一的中央投资模式向中央与地方共同投资的模式转变,中央和地方相继成立了专业投资公司,各省、自治区、直辖市和计划单列市相继成立了地方投资公司。
1994年分税制改革成为又一个重要转折,地方财政的不足,导致支持地方建设的乏力。
以湖北省荆州市为例,2003年-2008年,荆州市本级财政预算内和预算外投资合计只有8.2亿元,只占同期政府项目投资的2.8%,占社会投资的0.8%。
于是,为了突破资金瓶颈和法律障碍,?各地政府开始建立了一系列的专业投融资公司或事业单位承担建设任务,并利用这些单位法人承接银行或信托资金,成为了地方政府获取资金的主要平台。
这些以地方投融资平台出现的公司,往往能够获得政府划拨的土地或财政补贴,进而以此为条件向银行等金融机构
要求贷款,以用于市政建设、公用事业(2368.813,0.00,0.00%)等项目。
而2004年国务院发布了《关于投资体制改革的决定》更是在合理界定政府投资职能、拓宽项目融资渠道、健全投资宏观调控体系方面做出了开放性规定。这等于是为地方投融资公司在更大范围内和建立更广泛的融资渠道打开了便利之门。
截至目前,拥有独立财政权的各级政府大多建立了这一类的建设单位,作为项目业主,在政府的支持下完成项目融资、建设乃至经营的全部工作。地方政府投融资体系建设正成为我国投融资体制建设的重要环节。
狂奔的地方投融资平台
——全国共有政府投融资平台3800多家,连乡镇都在搭台
对于地方投融资平台的讨论并不是今天才有,而是伴随着整个政府投融资体制的改革进程。新近的背景是,地方投融资平台在本轮地方政府所面临的债务危机中,突然成为了地方政府所难以承受之累。
由于作为投融资平台的这些地方公司具有的特殊政府背景,一方面使其比较容易获得银行贷款和发行城投债,但另一方面,相当一部分城投公司具有政府担保性质,实质上成为了地方政府的隐形财政债务。
而这一投融资模式,在2008年以后更是被深为资金困乏的地方政府所超常规开发。
全球金融危机爆发后,中央政府出台了4万亿投资刺激规划。这一规划中,中央政府给地方政府规定了明确的资金配套比例。最终的执行情况显示,地方政府受制于资金来源单一的局限,配套能力遭遇巨大挑战,原有政府投资公司难以满足新的投资拉动和基础设施建设的需求。
国家审计署的报告称,在2009年的扩内需项目中,45%的地方配套资金没有到位。
为化解地方配套资金不足的问题,中央政府分别在《关于2008年深化经济体制改革工作的意见》、《关于2009年深化经济体制改革工作的意见》及2009年中央经济工作会议中多次提到要加快投融资体制的改革以解决当前困难并为长远发展提供良好的环境。
2009年3月23日,中国人民银行和中国银监会联合发布《关于进一步加强信贷结构调整促进国民经济平稳较快发展的指导意见》,更是明确提出“支持有条件的地方政府组建投融资平台,发行企业债、中期票据等融资工具,拓宽中央政府投资项目的配套资金融资渠道”。
在此背景下,各级地方政府依托原有城投公司和新建的投融资公司,试图打造出新形势下更大规模的新型投融资平台。有的省份甚至明确提出建立省市县三级政府投融资体系,以解决融资困境。
央行的调研结果显示,2009年5月末,全国共有政府投融资平台3800多家,总资产近9万亿元,负债已上升至5.26万亿元,平均资产负债率约60%,平均资产利润率不到1.3%,特别是县级平台几乎没有盈利。
尽管如此,对这一统计中得出的全国共有政府投融资平台3800多家的数字,更多的人认为是比较保守的估计。有相关市场人士告诉《中国经济周刊》,现在甚至有的乡镇都在建立投融资平台,具体数量或许根本无法统计。
6万亿之忧
——地方融资平台80%负债来自银行
除了在金融危机背景下激增的数量外,这些投融资平台的负债规模以及这种投融资模式是否可持续,亦是争论的核心。
在中国社会科学院价格与税收研究室副主任张斌看来,地方负债问题一直存在,只是由于地方政府过去虽然欠很多钱,但是收入增长得快,有还款能力,“但金融危机后经济增速放缓,导致地方的财政收入相对来说增速放缓,问题才被重视。”
之所以出现这样的问题,很重要的原因是,长期以来,迫于地方投资缺口所设立的投融资平台大多面临单个实力有限、政府资源分散、融资渠道单一、后续资金有限、公司职能单一、缺乏持续经营模式等不足,其中很重要的一个反映就是,银行贷款一直是这些投融资平台的最重要的资金来源。
据财政部财政科学研究所所长贾康测算,目前我国地方融资平台负债已经高达6万亿,其中有80%都是通过银行信贷获得的资金。
国务院发展研究中心金融研究所副所长巴曙松告诉《中国经济周刊》,“一些地方投融资平台的负债率已经达到了一定的警戒水平”,据他粗略统计,2009年地方政府的投融资平台的负债总规模已经超过了地方政府全年的总财政收入,“这至少应该作为一个很重要的指标和边界”。
“国务院要特别提出规范地方投融资平台,是因为如果城投公司债务出了问题,不但可能让地方财政兜底,而且直接风险很可能被转嫁给银行。”长三角某市的城投公司高管这样告诉《中国经济周刊》。
“目前,我们银行中的呆账坏账70%~80%都是由地方政府担保或地方政府背景公司无力偿还贷款所造成的,主要是在20世纪 90年代末那波政府基建投资热潮中形成的。”某中型股份制银行高层领导对记者表示。
在今年年初举行的中国人民银行2010年度工作会议上,中国人民银行行长周小川提出“要合理评估和有效防范地方融资平台信用风险,加强贷款用途管理,防止变相使用银行贷款作为项目资本金”。
银监会主席刘明康更是明确提出“全面评估和有效防范地方融资平台的风险,加强贷款跟踪检查”等要求。
“从央行表态来看,肯定是有些地方把银行贷款当项目资本金用了,等于说‘空手套白狼’,把风险完全推给了银行。”一位接近监管层的消息人士告诉《中国经济周刊》,“央行、银监会对地方投融资平台不规范的问题非常紧张,担心引发财政风险,转而引发金融风险,影响社会稳定。”
另一个值得关注的是,2009年年末,财政部专门下发《关于坚决制止财政违规担保向社会公众集资行为的通知》,紧急叫停了地方财政为融资平台违规担保向社会公众集资。这被解读为某些地方政府出现了将债务风险向社会转移的情况。
瑞信亚洲区首席分析师陶冬告诉《中国经济周刊》,地方政府大部分项目采用的是城投模式,即注册一个公司放很少部分的钱进去,然后到银行贷款,这个模式的根本弱点在于,它是靠土地价格评估的,“2009年卖地收入占到地方财政收入45%,中国如果要是利率出现了大幅的调整,房地产一定会出现变化,一旦地卖不动了,地方财政一定有问题,危机或将依次来临。”
交通银行(8.33,0.00,0.00%)首席经济学家连平认为,许多地方政府近几年将陆续进入偿债高峰期,而受土地出让金收益下滑和经济下行的影响,地方政府财税收入缩减较大,部分不具备自偿性的建设项目还款来源难以保证,偿债风险扩大。
此外,央行的货币政策何时真正紧缩尚不能确定,这也是悬在地方投融资平台上的一把利剑。
进退失据的地方融资
——信贷收紧后何以为继?
那么,已经向这些地方投融资平台发放了贷款的商业银行,又将如何应对当前形势?
陶冬的观点是,“目前能够做的主要是三方面的事,第一是严控新的不合理的项目;第二个尽快把建设项目进度加快,从而尽快产生效益和现金流;第三,银行应该在这些地方政府项目上做好足够的拨备,以应对未来可能出现的呆坏账。”
据了解,银监会已经通过内部渠道告知各银行在向“地方融资平台”贷款中必须把握住“三条红线”不动摇。这三条红线分别是:第一,严禁发放打捆贷款;第二,不得与地方政府签署无特定项目的大额授信合作协议;第三,对出资不实,治理架构、内部控制、风险管理、资金管理运用制度不健全的融资平台,要严格限制贷款,并立即协商风险防范具体措施。
然而,记者注意到银监会“三条红线”并未涉及“地方融资平台”抵押物或质押物变动问题,而这愈发成为衡量贷款风险大小的关键。
央行的调研结论还认为,政府投融资平台总体负债率较高,盈利能力较低,透明度较低,银行对平台及地方政府的整体债务水平难以准确评估,信贷资金监管难度较大,政府投融资平台贷款潜藏着系统性金融风险。
交通银行首席经济学家连平对《中国经济周刊》表示,这些政府背景贷款项目往往周期长、规模大、同质化而难以实现商业可持续性,直接影响其未来收益,项目偿债能力大打折扣,风险具有隐蔽性。
一位银行业人士告诉《中国经济周刊》,“如果银行在这样的资产表上继续放贷,可能会重蹈20世纪90年代中后期银行风险集聚暴露的覆辙。”
然而,现实情况却是,我国的城镇化建设已经进入新一轮建设高峰期,地方投融资平台仍然需要在城镇化中扮演着重要角色。如果这些平台的贷款能力受到限制,地方投融资平台所蕴含的危局将可能提前显现,并成为真正的危局,进而对中国经济产生重大影响。
对此,原财政部部长项怀诚告诉《中国经济周刊》,“这种情况显然是要引起重视了,不应该掉以轻心。不过如果我们国家经济正常,在今后的过程中这些负债能够逐步得以消化。”
巴曙松却认为,下一步如何为城市化进一步融资?依赖地方政府投融资平台推动的政府需求来刺激经济增长实际上面临着制约。这个问题也许不会在2010年暴露,但值得关注。
财税体制改革的期待
——地方政府债券发行待松绑
该来的问题迟早要来,对于地方投融资平台背后所包含的更大范围的地方债务危机将如何化解?
解铃还需系铃人。
“中国当前仍处于城市化进程中,地方政府有大量改善基础设施的投资需求,地方上要做很多工作,需要大量资金,而我国的《宪法》规定地方政府不能举债。如何弥补这个资金缺口,是各级政府都普遍面临的一个基本问题,所以才会产生各种各样的融资平台的问题。”张斌向《中国经济周刊》分析。
北京市道可特律师事务所主任、北京市朝阳区第十四届人大代表刘光超亦表达了同样观点。在其看来,地方政府债务的急剧累积和迅猛增长,已成为普遍性、全局性的问题,并已严重影响了基层政府的正常运转,恶化了社会信用环境,埋下了巨大的社会危机隐患。究其根源,既有地方经济发展滞后的原因,又有现行体制下事权与财权高度不对称的因素;既有国家宏观政策的影响,又有地方政绩工程和管理缺位的推动,以及没有规范的制度化融资渠道,已久为人所诟病。
基于此判断,刘光超认为,一方面要严防产生新的不合理债务,建立科学的地方政府债务管理机制;而更要紧的是如何清除历史遗留问题,确保落实偿债资金来源,制定切实可行的偿债计划。
在湖北省财政厅纪检组副组长、监察室主任傅光明看来,建立偿债资金来源机制和偿债准备金制度,可以从6个方面筹措资金:从土地出让收入中提取一定比例;从市政配套费中筹集一定资金;从国有资产收益中集中一定比例;在国库现金流管理上作文章,视财政经济运行状况,将库底资金作为压缩政府债务的辅助工具或机动财力;收回债务人拥有的资产,通过拍卖、转让变现后抵偿债务;对行政事业单位拖欠的债务,编制部门预算时应安排专项还贷准备金。
当然,“上级政府要建立地方政府债务政策激励机制,完善财政体制和财政转移支付激励措施,鼓励地方政府帮扶减债,采取措施减少债务负担,对国债转贷资金,属公益性建设的,建议中央财政给予豁免。对逾期债务和不良债务给予减免。”傅光明说。
国家发改委宏观经济研究院投资研究所的一份调研报告建议称,要加强政府财政与债务的透明度,建立与完善政府债务统计报告制度,实现商业银行对政府债务的规模、结构和完全性进行动态监测和评估,从而为商业银行提供真实可靠的信息,方便商业银行信贷决策。
但这些还都是技术性问题,包括傅光明在内的多位受访人均认为,要解决地方债务危机,更根本的是要修订《预算法》,赋予地方政府债务发行的一定权限。
1994年通过的《预算法》规定:地方各级预算按照量入为出、收支平衡的原则编列,不列赤字。除法律和国务院另有规定外,地方政府不得发行地方政府债券。
“因此,地方政府严格意义上说,是不存在收支失衡的,也就是说从财政账面上,是没有财政赤字的。”傅光明说,“但是,一些地方政府靠借债搞建设,债权落空或者超过还款能力形成的地方政府债务,是对后续财力的透支。这种透支积累到一定程度将引发财政风险。”
据《中国经济周刊》了解,中部某省有一个地级市,目前,市直政府债务总额达30.62亿元,相当于2007年市直财政一般预算收入的7倍之多。也就是说,市直可用财力即使全部用来还债,也需要7年才能还清。如果按城区人口70万人计算,平摊到每人的政府债务约4400元。如果按市直行政事业单位在职人员2.6万人计算(即行政在编人数)计算,人均债务近11.8万元,若按人均年工资2万元计算,需要6年不发工资才能还清政府债务。
记者获知的国务院发展研究中心的一份报告也建议称,要尽快完善《预算法》、《担保法》等相关法律,给予地方政府适度负债的法律通道,规范政府举债,债务率已经超出警戒线一定程度的政府不得再举债。
“地方政府应当成为独立的财政主体,有明确的财政支出范围和收入来源,而为了防范风险,应当制定《财政收支划分法》和《财政转移支付法》和《公债法》,并在《公债法》中分设‘地方政府债务’专章,规定发行地方债券的条件、资金用途、信息公开等事项,通过加强监管确保资金安全。”傅光明对《中国经济周刊》表示。
无论是地方投融资平台的贷款还是他们发行的中期票据、企业债,最后承担风险的都是商业银行。地方政府几年一换届,“管借不管还”,而商业银行也只好相信地方信用。
来源:中国经济周刊
2010年03月02日09:05
《中国经济周刊》记者 叶建国 谈佳隆 王红茹 刘永刚/北京报道
唯一可以确定的就是“不确定”,而最大的风险也是不确定。
这句听起来有些绕口的话,用来形容目前地方政府所面临的债务危机似乎颇为合适。
2010年1月19日,在国务院第四次全体会议上,国务院总理温家宝把“尽快制定规范地方融资平台的措施,防范潜在财政风险”列入今年宏观政策方面重点抓好的工作之一。
这引发了各界对于我国地方债务情况的关注。过去半年来,中国人民银行、银监会、保监会、财政部、审计署等纷纷对各地方政府“负债”问题发出过警告。决策层开始担心,地方债务问题可能会成为4万亿元投资和9.6万亿元银行天量信贷的后遗症,并危及中国经济的安全。
遗憾的是,直到目前,尚没有任何一项权威的统计对地方政府的负债数字进行发布。
本刊记者目前获得的统计数据包括:央行的统计显示,截至2009年5月末,全国地方政府的负债超过5万亿元;财政部财政科学研究所所长贾康的估算是,目前我国地方投融资平台负债超过6万亿元,其中地方债务总余额在4万亿元以上,约相当于GDP的16.5%,财政收入的80.2%,地方财政收入的174.6%;国务院发展研究中心金融所副所长巴曙松亦认为,2009年地方政府的投融资平台的负债总规模已经超过了地方政府全年的总财政收入。
更现实的情况是,在国务院有关部门发出警示和市场投资主体做出谨慎判断的双重背景下,本已经负重前行的地方投融资体系正遭遇更大困境。
如此巨额的地方债务将如何通过技术化的政策手段进行化解?对于被很多地方政府奉为圭臬的地方投融资平台的功过和成败又将如何评价?
这些讨论,直接关乎新一轮的国家财税体制改革。在分税制推行了16年以后,新一轮围绕我国财税体制改革的争论或将在地方财政遭遇严重危机的背景下激烈展开,围绕新一轮财税体制改革的中央与地方博弈也已经开始。
投融资平台的身世
——地方财政困境下的市场化出路
巨额债务引发的喧嚣,其前身是始终存在的对地方投融资平台的争论。
这牵涉到对政府投融资体系的理解。所谓政府投融资是指政府为实现一定的产业政策和财政政策目标, 在不以盈利为直接目的的前提下, 通过信用方式筹集和使用资金, 采取直接或间接方式投入经济建设的一种活动。
一般来说,政府投融资具有三个特征:一是有偿性和公共性;二是兼有金融性和财政性;三是灵活性。政府投融资不同于财政预算,它是根据财政政策的需要和经济建设的需要进行的信用活动,可以按照建设任务具体情况实行不同的投融资方式。
十一届三中全会以来,特别是十五大以来,随着市场经济的发展和完善、国企改革的不断深入、多种经济形式的发展和资本市场的发育,我国投融资体制的改革始终围绕着两条主线:一是逐步认可并推进市场对资源配置的作用;二是逐步推进投资决策权的分散,由中央到地方、由单一主体到多元化主体。
与此同时,我国城市化进程开始进入稳定快速发展阶段,加速城市基础设施建设对于改善居民生活水平和吸引产业集群、促进城市经济发展水平有着重要作用。但限于改革开放初期的中国政府投融资体系的非市场化背景,早期的城市基础设施建设均依靠于财政的直接投入,资金来源除国家划拨资金外,主要来源于地方财政收入,这就导致资金来源与快速增长的投资需求难以适应。
1988 年,国务院发布了《关于投资管理体制的近期改革方案》,政府的投融资体系由单一的中央投资模式向中央与地方共同投资的模式转变,中央和地方相继成立了专业投资公司,各省、自治区、直辖市和计划单列市相继成立了地方投资公司。
1994年分税制改革成为又一个重要转折,地方财政的不足,导致支持地方建设的乏力。
以湖北省荆州市为例,2003年-2008年,荆州市本级财政预算内和预算外投资合计只有8.2亿元,只占同期政府项目投资的2.8%,占社会投资的0.8%。
于是,为了突破资金瓶颈和法律障碍,?各地政府开始建立了一系列的专业投融资公司或事业单位承担建设任务,并利用这些单位法人承接银行或信托资金,成为了地方政府获取资金的主要平台。
这些以地方投融资平台出现的公司,往往能够获得政府划拨的土地或财政补贴,进而以此为条件向银行等金融机构
要求贷款,以用于市政建设、公用事业(2368.813,0.00,0.00%)等项目。
而2004年国务院发布了《关于投资体制改革的决定》更是在合理界定政府投资职能、拓宽项目融资渠道、健全投资宏观调控体系方面做出了开放性规定。这等于是为地方投融资公司在更大范围内和建立更广泛的融资渠道打开了便利之门。
截至目前,拥有独立财政权的各级政府大多建立了这一类的建设单位,作为项目业主,在政府的支持下完成项目融资、建设乃至经营的全部工作。地方政府投融资体系建设正成为我国投融资体制建设的重要环节。
狂奔的地方投融资平台
——全国共有政府投融资平台3800多家,连乡镇都在搭台
对于地方投融资平台的讨论并不是今天才有,而是伴随着整个政府投融资体制的改革进程。新近的背景是,地方投融资平台在本轮地方政府所面临的债务危机中,突然成为了地方政府所难以承受之累。
由于作为投融资平台的这些地方公司具有的特殊政府背景,一方面使其比较容易获得银行贷款和发行城投债,但另一方面,相当一部分城投公司具有政府担保性质,实质上成为了地方政府的隐形财政债务。
而这一投融资模式,在2008年以后更是被深为资金困乏的地方政府所超常规开发。
全球金融危机爆发后,中央政府出台了4万亿投资刺激规划。这一规划中,中央政府给地方政府规定了明确的资金配套比例。最终的执行情况显示,地方政府受制于资金来源单一的局限,配套能力遭遇巨大挑战,原有政府投资公司难以满足新的投资拉动和基础设施建设的需求。
国家审计署的报告称,在2009年的扩内需项目中,45%的地方配套资金没有到位。
为化解地方配套资金不足的问题,中央政府分别在《关于2008年深化经济体制改革工作的意见》、《关于2009年深化经济体制改革工作的意见》及2009年中央经济工作会议中多次提到要加快投融资体制的改革以解决当前困难并为长远发展提供良好的环境。
2009年3月23日,中国人民银行和中国银监会联合发布《关于进一步加强信贷结构调整促进国民经济平稳较快发展的指导意见》,更是明确提出“支持有条件的地方政府组建投融资平台,发行企业债、中期票据等融资工具,拓宽中央政府投资项目的配套资金融资渠道”。
在此背景下,各级地方政府依托原有城投公司和新建的投融资公司,试图打造出新形势下更大规模的新型投融资平台。有的省份甚至明确提出建立省市县三级政府投融资体系,以解决融资困境。
央行的调研结果显示,2009年5月末,全国共有政府投融资平台3800多家,总资产近9万亿元,负债已上升至5.26万亿元,平均资产负债率约60%,平均资产利润率不到1.3%,特别是县级平台几乎没有盈利。
尽管如此,对这一统计中得出的全国共有政府投融资平台3800多家的数字,更多的人认为是比较保守的估计。有相关市场人士告诉《中国经济周刊》,现在甚至有的乡镇都在建立投融资平台,具体数量或许根本无法统计。
6万亿之忧
——地方融资平台80%负债来自银行
除了在金融危机背景下激增的数量外,这些投融资平台的负债规模以及这种投融资模式是否可持续,亦是争论的核心。
在中国社会科学院价格与税收研究室副主任张斌看来,地方负债问题一直存在,只是由于地方政府过去虽然欠很多钱,但是收入增长得快,有还款能力,“但金融危机后经济增速放缓,导致地方的财政收入相对来说增速放缓,问题才被重视。”
之所以出现这样的问题,很重要的原因是,长期以来,迫于地方投资缺口所设立的投融资平台大多面临单个实力有限、政府资源分散、融资渠道单一、后续资金有限、公司职能单一、缺乏持续经营模式等不足,其中很重要的一个反映就是,银行贷款一直是这些投融资平台的最重要的资金来源。
据财政部财政科学研究所所长贾康测算,目前我国地方融资平台负债已经高达6万亿,其中有80%都是通过银行信贷获得的资金。
国务院发展研究中心金融研究所副所长巴曙松告诉《中国经济周刊》,“一些地方投融资平台的负债率已经达到了一定的警戒水平”,据他粗略统计,2009年地方政府的投融资平台的负债总规模已经超过了地方政府全年的总财政收入,“这至少应该作为一个很重要的指标和边界”。
“国务院要特别提出规范地方投融资平台,是因为如果城投公司债务出了问题,不但可能让地方财政兜底,而且直接风险很可能被转嫁给银行。”长三角某市的城投公司高管这样告诉《中国经济周刊》。
“目前,我们银行中的呆账坏账70%~80%都是由地方政府担保或地方政府背景公司无力偿还贷款所造成的,主要是在20世纪 90年代末那波政府基建投资热潮中形成的。”某中型股份制银行高层领导对记者表示。
在今年年初举行的中国人民银行2010年度工作会议上,中国人民银行行长周小川提出“要合理评估和有效防范地方融资平台信用风险,加强贷款用途管理,防止变相使用银行贷款作为项目资本金”。
银监会主席刘明康更是明确提出“全面评估和有效防范地方融资平台的风险,加强贷款跟踪检查”等要求。
“从央行表态来看,肯定是有些地方把银行贷款当项目资本金用了,等于说‘空手套白狼’,把风险完全推给了银行。”一位接近监管层的消息人士告诉《中国经济周刊》,“央行、银监会对地方投融资平台不规范的问题非常紧张,担心引发财政风险,转而引发金融风险,影响社会稳定。”
另一个值得关注的是,2009年年末,财政部专门下发《关于坚决制止财政违规担保向社会公众集资行为的通知》,紧急叫停了地方财政为融资平台违规担保向社会公众集资。这被解读为某些地方政府出现了将债务风险向社会转移的情况。
瑞信亚洲区首席分析师陶冬告诉《中国经济周刊》,地方政府大部分项目采用的是城投模式,即注册一个公司放很少部分的钱进去,然后到银行贷款,这个模式的根本弱点在于,它是靠土地价格评估的,“2009年卖地收入占到地方财政收入45%,中国如果要是利率出现了大幅的调整,房地产一定会出现变化,一旦地卖不动了,地方财政一定有问题,危机或将依次来临。”
交通银行(8.33,0.00,0.00%)首席经济学家连平认为,许多地方政府近几年将陆续进入偿债高峰期,而受土地出让金收益下滑和经济下行的影响,地方政府财税收入缩减较大,部分不具备自偿性的建设项目还款来源难以保证,偿债风险扩大。
此外,央行的货币政策何时真正紧缩尚不能确定,这也是悬在地方投融资平台上的一把利剑。
进退失据的地方融资
——信贷收紧后何以为继?
那么,已经向这些地方投融资平台发放了贷款的商业银行,又将如何应对当前形势?
陶冬的观点是,“目前能够做的主要是三方面的事,第一是严控新的不合理的项目;第二个尽快把建设项目进度加快,从而尽快产生效益和现金流;第三,银行应该在这些地方政府项目上做好足够的拨备,以应对未来可能出现的呆坏账。”
据了解,银监会已经通过内部渠道告知各银行在向“地方融资平台”贷款中必须把握住“三条红线”不动摇。这三条红线分别是:第一,严禁发放打捆贷款;第二,不得与地方政府签署无特定项目的大额授信合作协议;第三,对出资不实,治理架构、内部控制、风险管理、资金管理运用制度不健全的融资平台,要严格限制贷款,并立即协商风险防范具体措施。
然而,记者注意到银监会“三条红线”并未涉及“地方融资平台”抵押物或质押物变动问题,而这愈发成为衡量贷款风险大小的关键。
央行的调研结论还认为,政府投融资平台总体负债率较高,盈利能力较低,透明度较低,银行对平台及地方政府的整体债务水平难以准确评估,信贷资金监管难度较大,政府投融资平台贷款潜藏着系统性金融风险。
交通银行首席经济学家连平对《中国经济周刊》表示,这些政府背景贷款项目往往周期长、规模大、同质化而难以实现商业可持续性,直接影响其未来收益,项目偿债能力大打折扣,风险具有隐蔽性。
一位银行业人士告诉《中国经济周刊》,“如果银行在这样的资产表上继续放贷,可能会重蹈20世纪90年代中后期银行风险集聚暴露的覆辙。”
然而,现实情况却是,我国的城镇化建设已经进入新一轮建设高峰期,地方投融资平台仍然需要在城镇化中扮演着重要角色。如果这些平台的贷款能力受到限制,地方投融资平台所蕴含的危局将可能提前显现,并成为真正的危局,进而对中国经济产生重大影响。
对此,原财政部部长项怀诚告诉《中国经济周刊》,“这种情况显然是要引起重视了,不应该掉以轻心。不过如果我们国家经济正常,在今后的过程中这些负债能够逐步得以消化。”
巴曙松却认为,下一步如何为城市化进一步融资?依赖地方政府投融资平台推动的政府需求来刺激经济增长实际上面临着制约。这个问题也许不会在2010年暴露,但值得关注。
财税体制改革的期待
——地方政府债券发行待松绑
该来的问题迟早要来,对于地方投融资平台背后所包含的更大范围的地方债务危机将如何化解?
解铃还需系铃人。
“中国当前仍处于城市化进程中,地方政府有大量改善基础设施的投资需求,地方上要做很多工作,需要大量资金,而我国的《宪法》规定地方政府不能举债。如何弥补这个资金缺口,是各级政府都普遍面临的一个基本问题,所以才会产生各种各样的融资平台的问题。”张斌向《中国经济周刊》分析。
北京市道可特律师事务所主任、北京市朝阳区第十四届人大代表刘光超亦表达了同样观点。在其看来,地方政府债务的急剧累积和迅猛增长,已成为普遍性、全局性的问题,并已严重影响了基层政府的正常运转,恶化了社会信用环境,埋下了巨大的社会危机隐患。究其根源,既有地方经济发展滞后的原因,又有现行体制下事权与财权高度不对称的因素;既有国家宏观政策的影响,又有地方政绩工程和管理缺位的推动,以及没有规范的制度化融资渠道,已久为人所诟病。
基于此判断,刘光超认为,一方面要严防产生新的不合理债务,建立科学的地方政府债务管理机制;而更要紧的是如何清除历史遗留问题,确保落实偿债资金来源,制定切实可行的偿债计划。
在湖北省财政厅纪检组副组长、监察室主任傅光明看来,建立偿债资金来源机制和偿债准备金制度,可以从6个方面筹措资金:从土地出让收入中提取一定比例;从市政配套费中筹集一定资金;从国有资产收益中集中一定比例;在国库现金流管理上作文章,视财政经济运行状况,将库底资金作为压缩政府债务的辅助工具或机动财力;收回债务人拥有的资产,通过拍卖、转让变现后抵偿债务;对行政事业单位拖欠的债务,编制部门预算时应安排专项还贷准备金。
当然,“上级政府要建立地方政府债务政策激励机制,完善财政体制和财政转移支付激励措施,鼓励地方政府帮扶减债,采取措施减少债务负担,对国债转贷资金,属公益性建设的,建议中央财政给予豁免。对逾期债务和不良债务给予减免。”傅光明说。
国家发改委宏观经济研究院投资研究所的一份调研报告建议称,要加强政府财政与债务的透明度,建立与完善政府债务统计报告制度,实现商业银行对政府债务的规模、结构和完全性进行动态监测和评估,从而为商业银行提供真实可靠的信息,方便商业银行信贷决策。
但这些还都是技术性问题,包括傅光明在内的多位受访人均认为,要解决地方债务危机,更根本的是要修订《预算法》,赋予地方政府债务发行的一定权限。
1994年通过的《预算法》规定:地方各级预算按照量入为出、收支平衡的原则编列,不列赤字。除法律和国务院另有规定外,地方政府不得发行地方政府债券。
“因此,地方政府严格意义上说,是不存在收支失衡的,也就是说从财政账面上,是没有财政赤字的。”傅光明说,“但是,一些地方政府靠借债搞建设,债权落空或者超过还款能力形成的地方政府债务,是对后续财力的透支。这种透支积累到一定程度将引发财政风险。”
据《中国经济周刊》了解,中部某省有一个地级市,目前,市直政府债务总额达30.62亿元,相当于2007年市直财政一般预算收入的7倍之多。也就是说,市直可用财力即使全部用来还债,也需要7年才能还清。如果按城区人口70万人计算,平摊到每人的政府债务约4400元。如果按市直行政事业单位在职人员2.6万人计算(即行政在编人数)计算,人均债务近11.8万元,若按人均年工资2万元计算,需要6年不发工资才能还清政府债务。
记者获知的国务院发展研究中心的一份报告也建议称,要尽快完善《预算法》、《担保法》等相关法律,给予地方政府适度负债的法律通道,规范政府举债,债务率已经超出警戒线一定程度的政府不得再举债。
“地方政府应当成为独立的财政主体,有明确的财政支出范围和收入来源,而为了防范风险,应当制定《财政收支划分法》和《财政转移支付法》和《公债法》,并在《公债法》中分设‘地方政府债务’专章,规定发行地方债券的条件、资金用途、信息公开等事项,通过加强监管确保资金安全。”傅光明对《中国经济周刊》表示。
无论是地方投融资平台的贷款还是他们发行的中期票据、企业债,最后承担风险的都是商业银行。地方政府几年一换届,“管借不管还”,而商业银行也只好相信地方信用。
Professor Ananya Roy's Lecture on Global Poverty
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8sCVQxvH-WI
I love and admire people who inspire.
I love and admire people who inspire.
Wednesday, December 2, 2009
凯洛诉新伦敦市案--有偿征收 (Kelo vs. The City of New London on Eminent Domain)
http://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%87%AF%E6%B4%9B%E8%AF%89%E6%96%B0%E4%BC%A6%E6%95%A6%E5%B8%82%E6%A1%88
凯洛诉新伦敦市案(Susette Kelo, et al. v. City of New London, et al.)是美国联邦最高法院判决的一起关于政府是否可以经济发展为理由征用私有财产并转移到另一个私有实体。原告凯洛为被征地的居民代表,被告则是康涅狄格州新伦敦市市政当局。2005年6月23日,美国联邦最高法院对这起案子所作的最新判决引来了各方广泛关注。这起涉及土地“有偿征收”的案子,按照美高院最新判决,地方市政当局有权强行征收私有土地用于商业开发——只要这种开发属于“公共使用”范畴。高院裁定“该市对于被征地的规划部署合乎‘公共使用’,且在‘第五条修正案’条款的含义之内。”。因此,此案同时也引发了关于“第五条修正案”该怎么实现、怎么解释、怎么运用的新一轮讨论。
目录 [隐藏]
1 前因
2 案情
2.1 开发计划
2.2 向州法院控告市政当局
2.3 上诉联邦最高法院
2.4 口头辩论
3 判决
3.1 判决意见
3.2 反对意见
4 后续发展
4.1 国会的反应
[编辑] 前因
这起案子因康涅狄格州最高法院支持被告新伦敦市市政当局,而被原告上诉到联邦最高法院。康涅狄格州最高法院裁定因经济开发而对土地的强制征用(本案的核心焦点)不违反州和联邦宪法关于“公共使用”的条款(私有财产不得未经合理赔偿挪为公用)。州高院认为只要经济开发项目能提供就业机会、增加税收、增加市政收入、有利于凋敝小城经济复苏,那么它就符合“公共使用”的要求。它还认为,只要私有企业起着合法的政府全权代理人的作用,那么市政当局把“征用权”委托给私有企业也是不违背宪法的。
联邦最高法院批准了上诉请求,同意对1954年Berman诉Parker案以来产生的新问题重新进行考量。在Berman一案里,政府为铲除贫民窟和枯萎旧城区而动用了征用权,即使第五条修正案也未能保护土地所有者不失去土地。但凯洛案有所不同,在这起案子里,市政当局动用征用权是出于复苏当地经济的目的,那么,第五条修正案能否保护这些土地所有者呢?
[编辑] 案情
[编辑] 开发计划
新伦敦市是美国东北部康涅狄格州一座小城市。在过去二十年里,小城经济状况一直不好,财政税收和城市人口持续下降,市府推行的一些经济开发计划也一直未见奏效。1998年,全球著名大制药商辉瑞公司在新伦敦市附近建了座研发中心。看到机会来了,新伦敦市市政府授权市政府控制下的一家私有实体——新伦敦市开发公司——对城边一块地重新进行规划,希望在辉瑞公司的牵头下,实现更多招商引资计划。
整个规划包括要建一座酒店和一个会议中心、一个州立公园、80–100幢新民居和其他一些商用楼等。开发计划把这一地区划分为六块用地,除1号地(用于建酒店和会议中心)外,其他五块地并没有在计划中详细列定具体的用处。2000年,市府批准了开发计划,把地批给了开发公司。
这片地共计90英亩大小,115户居民和商家。开发公司打算出价把它们全买下来,但其中15户不肯卖。15户中的九户即本案原告,凯洛是他们的代表,她在这片开发用地上有所小房子。
结果,新伦敦市市政府决定动用“征用权”。市政当局命令开发公司(私有实体)充任市府合法指定代理,强行征收15家“钉子户”的地产。
[编辑] 向州法院控告市政当局
于是,业主把市政当局告上了康涅狄格州法院,控告市政府滥用“征用权”。这些居民的控告依据,是美国宪法第五和第十四条修正案。美国宪法第五条修正案规定,“不给予公正赔偿,私有财产不得充作公用”。虽然宪法正文没有述及征用权,但第五条修正案在对征用权加以限制性规定的同时肯定了它的存在。其限制在于:(1)这一权力的行使必须是为了“公用”;(2)私有土地被征后要有“公正赔偿”。凯洛和其他上诉人上告的理由即他们认为开发公司所陈述的经济开发目的,与“公用”不符。
[编辑] 上诉联邦最高法院
这是美国联邦最高法院自1984年以来接手的首例征用案。近二十年来,美国各州和市政府不断在扩大“征用权”,而且常常是出于发展经济的目的。除了“经济发展”属否“公用”之辩外,凯洛案另有一个情况,那就是至少在表面上,负责规划土地的开发公司是一家私有实体;因此,原告争辩说,政府把私有土地从一个个人或公司手里夺走,再转给另一个私人,而仅仅因为后者能使这块地产出更高的赋税收入,这是违背美国宪政精神的。
凯洛案是自Midkiff案以来上诉到美高院的第一宗“有偿征用”案,因此,凯洛立刻成了各方大讨论的焦点,原告和被告两边都吸引了为数众多的支持者。在这起案子里,有40份中立观察方的书面意见被归入卷宗,其中25份支持原告。凯洛的支持者有大法官自由论者协会、美国有色人种协进会、美国退休者协会和由马丁·路德·金创始的南方基督教领导会议等(NAACP/AARP/SCLS)。后三个团体还联名签署了一份书面意见,抗议“有偿征用”经常被用来对付一些政治上的弱势群体,尤其是少数族群和老年人。
[编辑] 口头辩论
这起案子于2005年2月22日在美高院进行口头辩论,辩论会由大法官Sandra Day O'Connor主持。由于首席大法官威廉·伦奎斯特因病休养在家,大法官John Paul Stevens未能从佛罗里达及时赶回华盛顿,因此,这一天的口头辩论只有7位大法官听证。两位缺席的大法官事后通过阅读简报和口头辩论笔录,参与了本案的判决。
在口头辩论期间,有几位大法官所提的问题,已经预示出他们对本案所持的最终立场。例如,大法官Scalia认为支持市政当局将破坏“私用和公用之间的差别”,他声称,仅仅附带性地为州政府带来利益的私用,“不足以证明动用征用权是正当的。”
[编辑] 判决
[编辑] 判决意见
2005年6月23日,最高法院以5比4的微弱多数,对本案作出判决,支持新伦敦市 市政府。组成多数方的五位大法官分别是John Paul Stevens、Anthony Kennedy、David Souter、Stephen Breyer 和 Ruth Bader Ginsburg。判决意见由大法官John Paul Stevens执笔。另外,大法官Kennedy也同时出具一份配合意见,更详细地补充说明了对经济开发的司法审查标准。Stevens在意见书中称,在有关土地使用的决议里,应给予当地政府较宽的自由裁量权:“该市确已非常仔细地制定了开发计划,相信能给社区带来可评估的利益,这个利益包括,但不局限于,提供就业机会和增加税收”。
[编辑] 反对意见
四位持反对意见者分别是首席大法官威廉·伦奎斯特、大法官Sandra Day O'Connor、Antonin Scalia 和 Clarence Thomas。大法官Sandra Day O'Connor主写了反方意见,她认为以反罗宾汉的方式——劫贫济富——动用该项权力,后果不是下不为例,而是相反:“现在,任何私有财产都有可能因另一私方利益而被拿走,这个判决的后续效应将不是偶发事件, 受益者很可能是那些拥有不对等(比诸受害者)政治影响和权力的公民,比如大公司和大开发商等”。她论争说,这一判决模糊了“财产在私用和公用之间的区别——这等于是在把‘为了公共使用”这些字眼从第五条修正案的条款里有效地【剔除】”。
大法官Clarence Thomas也单独写了一份原意主义的反对意见,他说,这份判决所援引的依据是有缺陷的,而且“这个判决在对宪法的解释上犯了很严重的错误”。他谴责多数方把第五条修正案里的“公共使用”替换成了在意义上有着很大差别的“公共目的”:“正是这种措词上的变换,使得法庭认为,尽管这是违反常识的,一个投入巨资的城市重建项目(陈述的开发目的含糊地承诺将带来新的就业机会和增加税收,但同时也是辉瑞公司所喜见的),属于‘公共使用’”。Thomas还援引了NAACP/AARP/SCLS合作代表三种低收入阶层反对新泽西重建时所写的一份报告里的话:“损失将不成比例地落在弱势群体身上。”
[编辑] 后续发展
判决出来后,有多位原告表示他们将进一步寻求其他手段,继续抗议对他们家园的攫夺。然而,在高院作出判决后,凯洛和其他几位居民剩下的唯一合法途径只可能是在市政府赔付时,力争一个公平的要价——该市已准备花160万美元收购15户的地产,有关官员之后宣布了将征收的土地租回5年的计划。最终市政府同意将凯洛的房子移到市中心,并且支付了数额巨大的赔偿[1]。
由于招商引资失败,凯洛案判决两年之后,市政府征用的土地上并未进行任何开发。2009年11月,在征收规划重镇局重要角色的辉瑞公司宣布关闭在新伦敦市的研发中心[2]。
凯洛案已经尘埃落定,然而它所造成的广泛影响仍能继续看到。在判决之前,美国有八个州(阿肯色州, 佛罗里达州, 伊利诺斯州, 肯塔基州, 缅因州, 蒙大拿州, 南卡罗莱纳州和华盛顿州)明确禁止以发展经济为由(清除‘枯萎’城区例外)使用“征用权”。截至2007年,美国50州中的42州通过了法律来对以经济发展为目的的土地征用进行限制,其中21州明确禁止了类似凯洛案判决的财产征用。2005年7月4日,华盛顿时代周刊声称,这一判决已经激励了纽泽西州Newark和 密苏里州Arnold两地的官员有所行动。一份对超过1万起依其申述为“滥用”征用权的个案进行研究的报告证实,正如反方意见所预言的,低收入少数族群将最有可能领教凯洛案里所显示出来的权力,其他可能受影响的还包括住在码头区或旧城区等的中下阶层居民。
[编辑] 国会的反应
2005年6月27日,得克萨斯州参议员John Cornyn (R-TX)动议通过立法(S.B. 1313)限制以发展经济为由行使征用权,他建议:(1)若证明“公用”的理由仅止发展经济这一项,则应禁止联邦政府行使征用权;(2)对州和地方政府“使用联邦基金”行使征用权时应强行施加同样的限制。议案随后由众议院议员Dennis Rehberg (R-MO)、Tom DeLay (R-TX)、John Conyers (D-MI) 和 James Sensenbrenner (R-WI)提交美国众议院。由于大多数小规模的有偿征收(比如凯洛案中的那些),其决议和资金运作完全由当地政府掌控,因此即使议案得以通过成为法律,也不清楚将能产生多大的作用。此提案于2005年6月27日被提交参议院法务委员会讨论。
美国众议院少数党领袖南希·佩洛西认为议案本身有违政权分离原则,而且将会要求对第五条修正案再次进行修改。她对判决本身没有发表意见。
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelo_v._City_of_New_London
Kelo v. City of New London, 545 U.S. 469 (2005)[1] was a case decided by the Supreme Court of the United States involving the use of eminent domain to transfer land from one private owner to another to further economic development. The case arose from the condemnation by New London, Connecticut, of privately owned real property so that it could be used as part of a comprehensive redevelopment plan. The Court held in a 5–4 decision that the general benefits a community enjoyed from economic growth qualified such redevelopment plans as a permissible "public use" under the Takings Clause of the Fifth Amendment.
Contents [hide]
1 History
2 The case
2.1 The case in the Connecticut courts
2.2 Certiorari to the U.S. Supreme Court
2.3 Oral argument
3 The Court's decision
3.1 Majority and concurring opinions
3.2 Dissenting opinions
4 Subsequent history
5 Public reaction and the wider effect of Kelo
5.1 Public reaction
5.2 Presidential reaction
5.3 Congressional reaction
5.4 Scholarly Reaction
5.5 State legislation following Kelo v. City of New London
5.5.1 Arizona
5.5.2 New Hampshire
5.5.3 California
5.5.4 Florida
5.5.5 Iowa
5.5.6 Ohio
5.5.7 Michigan
5.5.8 Wisconsin
6 See also
7 References
8 Further reading
9 External links
[edit] History
The case was appealed from a decision by the Supreme Court of Connecticut in favor of the City of New London. The state supreme court held that the use of eminent domain for economic development did not violate the public use clauses of the state and federal constitutions. The court held that if an economic project creates new jobs, increases tax and other city revenues, and revitalizes a depressed urban area (even if not blighted), then the project qualifies as a public use. The court also ruled constitutional the government delegation of its eminent domain power to a private entity.
The United States Supreme Court granted certiorari to consider questions raised in Berman v. Parker, 348 U.S. 26 (1954) and later in Hawaii Housing Authority v. Midkiff, 467 U.S. 229 (1984).[2] Namely, whether a "public purpose" constitutes a "public use" for purposes of the Fifth Amendment's Taking Clause: "nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation". Specifically, does the Fifth Amendment, applicable to the states through the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment (see main article: Incorporation of the Bill of Rights), protect landowners from takings for economic development, rather than, as in Berman, for the elimination of slums and blight?
The decision was widely criticized.[3] Many of the public viewed the outcome as a gross violation of property rights and as a misinterpretation of the Fifth Amendment, the consequence of which would be to benefit large corporations at the expense of individual homeowners and local communities. Some in the legal profession construe the public's outrage as being directed not at the interpretation of legal principles involved in the case, but at the broad moral principles of the general outcome.[4] "Federal appeals court judge Richard Posner wrote that the political response to Kelo is "evidence of [the decision's] pragmatic soundness." Judicial action would be unnecessary, Posner suggested, because the political process could take care of the problem."[5][6]
In November 2009, Pfizer, the beneficiary of the eminent domain action, announced that it would leave New London.[7]
[edit] The case
[edit] The case in the Connecticut courts
The owners sued the city in Connecticut courts, arguing that the city had misused its eminent domain power. The power of eminent domain is limited by the Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments to the United States Constitution. The Fifth Amendment, which restricts the actions of the federal government, says in part that "private property [shall not] be taken for public use, without just compensation"; under Section 1 of the Fourteenth Amendment, this limitation is also imposed on the actions of U.S. state and local governments. Kelo and the other appellants argued that economic development, the stated purpose of the taking and subsequent transfer of the land to the New London Development Corporation, did not qualify as public use. The Connecticut Supreme Court heard arguments on Dec. 2, 2002. The state court issued its decision (268 Conn. 1, SC16742) on March 9, 2004, siding with the city in a 4-3 decision, with the majority opinion authored by Justice Flemming L. Norcott, Jr., joined by Justices David M. Borden, Richard N. Palmer and Christine Vertefeuille[8]. Justice Peter T. Zarella wrote the dissent, joined by Chief Justice William J. Sullivan and Justice Joette Katz[9].
[edit] Certiorari to the U.S. Supreme Court
This case was the first major eminent domain case heard at the Supreme Court since 1984. In that time, states and municipalities had slowly extended their use of eminent domain, frequently to include economic development purposes where applicable. In the Kelo case, there was an additional twist in that the development corporation was ostensibly a private entity; thus the plaintiffs argued that it was not constitutional for the government to take private property from one individual or corporation and give it to another, if the government was simply doing so because the repossession would put the property to a use that would generate higher tax revenue.
The first eminent domain case since Midkiff to reach the Supreme Court, Kelo became the focus of vigorous discussion and attracted numerous supporters on both sides. Some 40 amicus curiae briefs were filed in the case, 25 on behalf of the petitioners. Suzette Kelo's supporters ranged from the libertarian Institute for Justice (the lead lawyers) to the NAACP, AARP, the late Martin Luther King's Southern Christian Leadership Conference and South Jersey Legal Services. The latter groups signed an amicus brief arguing that eminent domain has often been used against politically weak communities with high concentrations of minorities and elderly.
[edit] Oral argument
The case was argued on February 22, 2005. The case was heard by only seven members of the court with Associate Justice Sandra Day O'Connor presiding, as Chief Justice William Rehnquist was recuperating from medical treatment at home and Associate Justice John Paul Stevens was delayed on his return to Washington from Florida; both absent Justices read the briefs and oral argument transcripts and participated in the case decision.
During oral arguments, several of the Justices asked questions that forecast their ultimate positions on the case. Justice Antonin Scalia, for example, suggested that a ruling in favor of the city would destroy "the distinction between private use and public use," asserting that a private use which provided merely incidental benefits to the state was "not enough to justify use of the condemnation power."
[edit] The Court's decision
[edit] Majority and concurring opinions
On June 23, 2005, the Supreme Court, in a 5–4 decision, ruled in favor of the City of New London. Justice John Paul Stevens wrote the majority opinion, joined by Justices Anthony Kennedy, David Souter, Ruth Bader Ginsburg and Stephen Breyer. Justice Kennedy wrote a concurring opinion setting out a more detailed standard for judicial review of economic development takings than that found in Stevens's majority opinion. In so doing, Justice Kennedy contributed to the Court's trend of turning minimum scrutiny—the idea that government policy need only bear a rational relation to a legitimate government purpose—into a fact-based test.
In Hawaii Housing Authority v. Midkiff, 467 US 229 (1984), the Court had said that the government purpose under minimum scrutiny need only be "conceivable." In two 1996 cases the Court clarified that concept. In Romer v. Evans, 517 US 620, the Court said that the government purpose must be "independent and legitimate." And in U.S. v. Virginia, 518 U.S. 515, the Court said the government purpose "must be genuine, not hypothesized or invented post hoc in response to litigation." Thus, the Court made it clear that, in the scrutiny regime established in West Coast Hotel v. Parrish, 300 US 379 (1937), government purpose is a question of fact for the trier of fact.
Kennedy fleshed out this doctrine in his Kelo concurring opinion; he sets out a program of civil discovery in the context of a challenge to an assertion of government purpose. However, he does not explicitly limit these criteria to eminent domain, nor to minimum scrutiny, suggesting that they may be generalized to all health and welfare regulation in the scrutiny regime. Because Kennedy signed on to the Court's majority opinion, his concurrence is not binding on lower courts. He wrote:
A court confronted with a plausible accusation of impermissible favoritism to private parties should [conduct]….a careful and extensive inquiry into ‘whether, in fact, the development plan [chronology] [1.] is of primary benefit to . . . the developer…, and private businesses which may eventually locate in the plan area…, [2.] and in that regard, only of incidental benefit to the city…[.]’" Kennedy is also interested in facts of the chronology which show, with respect to government, [3.] awareness of…depressed economic condition and evidence corroborating the validity of this concern…, [4.] the substantial commitment of public funds…before most of the private beneficiaries were known…, [5.] evidence that [government] reviewed a variety of development plans…[,] [6.] [government] chose a private developer from a group of applicants rather than picking out a particular transferee beforehand and… [7.] other private beneficiaries of the project [were]…unknown [to government] because the…space proposed to be built [had] not yet been rented….
Kelo v. City of New London did not establish entirely new law concerning eminent domain. Although the decision was controversial, it was not the first time “public use” had been interpreted by the Supreme Court as “public purpose.” In the majority opinion, Justice Stevens wrote the "Court long ago rejected any literal requirement that condemned property be put into use for the general public" (545 U.S. 469). Thus precedent played an important role in the 5-4 decision of the Supreme Court. The Fifth Amendment was interpreted the same way as in Midkiff (467 U.S. 229) and other earlier eminent domain cases.
[edit] Dissenting opinions
On June 25, 2005, Justice Sandra Day O'Connor wrote the principal dissent, joined by Chief Justice William Rehnquist, Justice Antonin Scalia and Justice Clarence Thomas. The dissenting opinion suggested that the use of this taking power in a reverse Robin Hood fashion— take from the poor, give to the rich— would become the norm, not the exception:
“ Any property may now be taken for the benefit of another private party, but the fallout from this decision will not be random. The beneficiaries are likely to be those citizens with disproportionate influence and power in the political process, including large corporations and development firms. ”
She argued that the decision eliminates "any distinction between private and public use of property — and thereby effectively delete[s] the words 'for public use' from the Takings Clause of the Fifth Amendment." 125 S.Ct. 2655, 2671
Clarence Thomas also penned a separate originalist dissent, in which he argued that the precedents the court's decision relied upon were flawed and that "something has gone seriously awry with this Court's interpretation of the Constitution." He accuses the majority of replacing the Fifth Amendment's "Public Use" clause with a very different "public purpose" test:
“ This deferential shift in phraseology enables the Court to hold, against all common sense, that a costly urban-renewal project whose stated purpose is a vague promise of new jobs and increased tax revenue, but which is also suspiciously agreeable to the Pfizer Corporation, is for a 'public use.' ”
Thomas also made use of the argument presented in the NAACP/AARP/SCLC/SJLS amicus brief on behalf of three low-income residents' groups fighting redevelopment in New Jersey, noting:
“ Allowing the government to take property solely for public purposes is bad enough, but extending the concept of public purpose to encompass any economically beneficial goal guarantees that these losses will fall disproportionately on poor communities. Those communities are not only systematically less likely to put their lands to the highest and best social use, but are also the least politically powerful.[10] ”
[edit] Subsequent history
One of the few remaining houses in the Fort Trumbull neighborhood, September 1, 2006. Underneath the white paint can just barely be read the words "Thank you Gov. Rell for your support" and the web URLs of two organizations protesting over-use of eminent domain, Castle Coalition and Institute for Justice.
The same house, June 10, 2007. The "thank you" is still visible, but the some windows are broken and others are boarded up, and "No Trespassing" has been spray-painted on it, as well as the URLs being obscured by spray paint.
Following the decision, many of the plaintiffs expressed an intent to find other means by which they could continue contesting the seizure of their homes.[11] Soon after the decision, city officials announced plans to charge the residents of the homes for back rent for the five years since condemnation procedures began. The city contends that the residents have been on city property for those five years and owe tens of thousands of dollars of rent. The case was finally resolved when the City agreed to move Kelo's house to a new location. The controversy was eventually settled when the city paid substantial additional compensation to the homeowners.[12] Three years after the Supreme Court case was decided, the Kelo house was dedicated after being relocated to a site close to downtown New London.[13] As of September 2009[update], the original Kelo property is now a vacant lot, generating no tax revenue for the city.[14] A group of New London residents formed a local political party, One New London, to combat the takings. While unsuccessful in gaining control of the New London City Council, they gained two seats and continue to try to gain a majority in the New London City Council to rectify the Ft. Trumbull takings. In June 2006 Governor M. Jodi Rell intervened with New London city officials, proposing the homeowners involved in the suit be deeded property in the Fort Trumbull neighborhood so they may retain their homes.[15] But two years after the Supreme Court decision nothing is happening on the ground and it appears doubtful whether the city's redevelopment project will proceed.
In September 2009, the land where Susette Kelo's home had once stood was an empty lot, and the promised 3,169 new jobs and $1.2 million a year in tax revenues had not materialized.[14] In November 2009, Pfizer announced it would close its New London research facility.[16]
After the Pfizer announcement, the San Francisco Chronicle in its lead editorial called the Kelo decision infamous:
The well-laid plans of redevelopers, however, did not pan out. The land where Suzette Kelo's little pink house once stood remains undeveloped. The proposed hotel-retail-condo "urban village" has not been built. And earlier this month, Pfizer Inc. announced that it is closing the $350 million research center in New London that was the anchor for the New London redevelopment plan, and will be relocating some 1,500 jobs.[17]
The Chronicle editorial quoted from the New York Times:
"They stole our home for economic development," ousted homeowner Michael Cristofaro told the New York Times. "It was all for Pfizer, and now they get up and walk away."
[edit] Public reaction and the wider effect of Kelo
Public reaction to the decision was not favorable and, as a result, many states changed their eminent domain laws. Prior to the Kelo decision, only eight states specifically prohibited the use of eminent domain for economic development except to eliminate blight. Since the decision, forty-three states have amended their eminent domain laws.[18]
[edit] Public reaction
Opposition to the ruling was stated by popular groups such as AARP, the NAACP, the Libertarian Party and the Institute for Justice. Many owners of family farms also disapproved of the ruling, as they saw it as an avenue by which cities could seize their land for private developments. The grassroots lobbying group American Conservative Union and The New Media Journal described the decision as judicial activism, as did numerous blogs.[19][20]
The New York Times editorial board agreed with the ruling, calling it "a welcome vindication of cities' ability to act in the public interest."[21] The Washington Post's editorial board also agreed with the ruling, writing, "... the court's decision was correct... New London's plan, whatever its flaws, is intended to help develop a city that has been in economic decline for many years."[22]
[edit] Presidential reaction
On June 23, 2006, the first anniversary of the original decision, President George W. Bush issued an executive order[23] instructing the federal government to use eminent domain
“ ...for the purpose of benefiting the general public and not merely for the purpose of advancing the economic interest of private parties to be given ownership or use of the property taken.[24] ”
However, since eminent domain is often exercised by local and state governments, the presidential order may thus have little overall effect.
[edit] Congressional reaction
On June 27, 2005, Senator John Cornyn (R-TX) introduced legislation, the "Protection of Homes, Small Businesses and Private Property Act of 2005" (S.B. 1313), to limit the use of eminent domain for economic development. The operative language
prohibits the federal government from exercising eminent domain power if the only justifying "public use" is economic development; and
imposes the same limit on state and local government exercise of eminent domain power "through the use of Federal funds."
Similar bills have subsequently been put forth in the House of Representatives by Congressman Dennis Rehberg (R-MT), Tom DeLay (R-TX) and John Conyers (D-MI) with James Sensenbrenner (R-WI). As some small-scale eminent domain condemnations (including notably those in the Kelo case) can be local in both decision and funding, it is unclear how much of an effect the bill would have if it passed into law.[25]
[edit] Scholarly Reaction
In 2008, land use Professor Daniel R. Mandelker argued that the public backlash against Kelo is rooted in the historical deficiencies of urban renewal legislation.[26] In particular, the article cited the failure to incorporate land use planning and a precise definition of blight in urban renewal legislation as problematic. In 2009, Professor Edward J. Lopez of San Jose State University studied passed laws and found that states with more economic freedom, greater value of new housing construction, and less racial and income inequality were more likely to have enacted stronger restrictions sooner.[27]
[edit] State legislation following Kelo v. City of New London
Prior to Kelo only eight states specifically prohibited the use of eminent domain for economic development except to eliminate blight: Arkansas, Florida, Illinois, Kentucky, Maine, Montana, South Carolina and Washington.[28] By July 2007, 42 states had enacted some type of reform legislation in response to the Kelo decision. Of those 42 states, 21 enacted laws that severely inhibited the takings allowed by the Kelo decision, while the rest enacted laws that place some limits on the power of municipalities to invoke eminent domain for economic development. The remaining eight states have not passed laws to limit the power of eminent domain for economic development.[27][29]
[edit] Arizona
Proposition 207, the Private Property Rights Protection Act, passed in 2006.
[edit] New Hampshire
Subsequent to this decision, there was widespread outrage across the country. California developer and libertarian Logan Darrow Clements scooped a similar proposal by New Hampshire libertarians to seize Justice Souter's 'blighted' home in Weare, New Hampshire, via eminent domain in order to build a "Lost Liberty Hotel" which he said would feature a "Just Desserts Cafe". Officials of the Libertarian Party of New Hampshire (LPNH) and the Coalition of New Hampshire Taxpayers had been eyeing the Justice's property to build a Constitution Park. A few weeks later, LPNH Vice-Chair Mike Lorrey discovered that Justice Breyer owned an extensive vacation estate in Plainfield, NH, and announced on the New Hampshire Public Radio show The Exchange focusing on eminent domain that LPNH would be pursuing their Constitution Park concept with Breyer's property in mind. Lorrey and Clements both advocated an amendment to New Hampshire's Constitution limiting eminent domain, which passed New Hampshire's legislature on March 24, 2006. The text of the amendment is as follows: "No part of a person's property shall be taken by eminent domain and transferred, directly or indirectly, to another person if the taking is for the purpose of private development or other private use of the property."[30] It passed by an overwhelming margin in the 2006 general election.[31]
[edit] California
Proposition 90 failed in the November 2006 election.[32] The initiative also included language requiring that government pay financial compensation to any property owners who could successfully argue that regulation caused them significant economic loss. Subsequently, Proposition 99 passed in the June 2008 election. It amends the state constitution to prohibit (subject to some exceptions):
“ state and local governments from using eminent domain to acquire an owner-occupied residence [if the owner has occupied the residence for at least one year], as defined, for conveyance to a private person or business entity. ”
[edit] Florida
Florida passed a 2006 ballot measure amending the Florida Constitution to restrict use of eminent domain.[33] The amendment says in part:
“ Private property taken by eminent domain [...] may not be conveyed to a natural person or private entity except as provided by general law passed by a three-fifths vote of the membership of each house of the Legislature. ”
[edit] Iowa
The Iowa Legislature passed a 2006 bill restricting the use of eminent domain for economic development. Gov. Tom Vilsack (D) vetoed the bill,[34] prompting the first special session of the Iowa Legislature in more than 40 years. The veto was overridden by votes of 90-8 in the Iowa House and 41-8 in the Iowa Senate.[35]
[edit] Ohio
An attempted use of eminent domain was brought before the Ohio supreme court in Norwood, Ohio v. Horney. The Supreme Court of Ohio held in favor of the property owners.
[edit] Michigan
Michigan passed a restriction on the use of eminent domain in November 2006, Proposition 4, 80% to 20%.[36] The text of the ballot initiative was as follows:[37]
A proposed constitutional amendment to prohibit government from taking private property by eminent domain for certain private purposes
The proposed constitutional amendment would:
Prohibit government from taking private property for transfer to another private individual or business for purposes of economic development or increasing tax revenue.
Provide that if an individual's principal residence is taken by government for public use, the individual must be paid at least 125% of property’s fair market value.
Require government that takes a private property to demonstrate that the taking is for a public use; if taken to eliminate blight, require a higher standard of proof to demonstrate that the taking of that property is for a public use.
Preserve existing rights of property owners.
[edit] Wisconsin
March 29, 2006 the governor signed into law 2005 Wisconsin Act 233, which prohibits condemnation of nonblighted property for transfer to a private entity. Nonblighted property is defined by a list of conditions that may make the property a detriment to the "public health, safety, or welfare." Two days earlier the governor signed into law 2005 Wisconsin Act 208, which creates procedures designed to protect property owners including public notice and public hearing requirements.[38]
The Wisconsin law has been criticized as one having little or no real protection for property owners because it provides protection against property condemnation for economic development but does allow property condemnation under a broadly defined description of blighted.[39][40]
凯洛诉新伦敦市案(Susette Kelo, et al. v. City of New London, et al.)是美国联邦最高法院判决的一起关于政府是否可以经济发展为理由征用私有财产并转移到另一个私有实体。原告凯洛为被征地的居民代表,被告则是康涅狄格州新伦敦市市政当局。2005年6月23日,美国联邦最高法院对这起案子所作的最新判决引来了各方广泛关注。这起涉及土地“有偿征收”的案子,按照美高院最新判决,地方市政当局有权强行征收私有土地用于商业开发——只要这种开发属于“公共使用”范畴。高院裁定“该市对于被征地的规划部署合乎‘公共使用’,且在‘第五条修正案’条款的含义之内。”。因此,此案同时也引发了关于“第五条修正案”该怎么实现、怎么解释、怎么运用的新一轮讨论。
目录 [隐藏]
1 前因
2 案情
2.1 开发计划
2.2 向州法院控告市政当局
2.3 上诉联邦最高法院
2.4 口头辩论
3 判决
3.1 判决意见
3.2 反对意见
4 后续发展
4.1 国会的反应
[编辑] 前因
这起案子因康涅狄格州最高法院支持被告新伦敦市市政当局,而被原告上诉到联邦最高法院。康涅狄格州最高法院裁定因经济开发而对土地的强制征用(本案的核心焦点)不违反州和联邦宪法关于“公共使用”的条款(私有财产不得未经合理赔偿挪为公用)。州高院认为只要经济开发项目能提供就业机会、增加税收、增加市政收入、有利于凋敝小城经济复苏,那么它就符合“公共使用”的要求。它还认为,只要私有企业起着合法的政府全权代理人的作用,那么市政当局把“征用权”委托给私有企业也是不违背宪法的。
联邦最高法院批准了上诉请求,同意对1954年Berman诉Parker案以来产生的新问题重新进行考量。在Berman一案里,政府为铲除贫民窟和枯萎旧城区而动用了征用权,即使第五条修正案也未能保护土地所有者不失去土地。但凯洛案有所不同,在这起案子里,市政当局动用征用权是出于复苏当地经济的目的,那么,第五条修正案能否保护这些土地所有者呢?
[编辑] 案情
[编辑] 开发计划
新伦敦市是美国东北部康涅狄格州一座小城市。在过去二十年里,小城经济状况一直不好,财政税收和城市人口持续下降,市府推行的一些经济开发计划也一直未见奏效。1998年,全球著名大制药商辉瑞公司在新伦敦市附近建了座研发中心。看到机会来了,新伦敦市市政府授权市政府控制下的一家私有实体——新伦敦市开发公司——对城边一块地重新进行规划,希望在辉瑞公司的牵头下,实现更多招商引资计划。
整个规划包括要建一座酒店和一个会议中心、一个州立公园、80–100幢新民居和其他一些商用楼等。开发计划把这一地区划分为六块用地,除1号地(用于建酒店和会议中心)外,其他五块地并没有在计划中详细列定具体的用处。2000年,市府批准了开发计划,把地批给了开发公司。
这片地共计90英亩大小,115户居民和商家。开发公司打算出价把它们全买下来,但其中15户不肯卖。15户中的九户即本案原告,凯洛是他们的代表,她在这片开发用地上有所小房子。
结果,新伦敦市市政府决定动用“征用权”。市政当局命令开发公司(私有实体)充任市府合法指定代理,强行征收15家“钉子户”的地产。
[编辑] 向州法院控告市政当局
于是,业主把市政当局告上了康涅狄格州法院,控告市政府滥用“征用权”。这些居民的控告依据,是美国宪法第五和第十四条修正案。美国宪法第五条修正案规定,“不给予公正赔偿,私有财产不得充作公用”。虽然宪法正文没有述及征用权,但第五条修正案在对征用权加以限制性规定的同时肯定了它的存在。其限制在于:(1)这一权力的行使必须是为了“公用”;(2)私有土地被征后要有“公正赔偿”。凯洛和其他上诉人上告的理由即他们认为开发公司所陈述的经济开发目的,与“公用”不符。
[编辑] 上诉联邦最高法院
这是美国联邦最高法院自1984年以来接手的首例征用案。近二十年来,美国各州和市政府不断在扩大“征用权”,而且常常是出于发展经济的目的。除了“经济发展”属否“公用”之辩外,凯洛案另有一个情况,那就是至少在表面上,负责规划土地的开发公司是一家私有实体;因此,原告争辩说,政府把私有土地从一个个人或公司手里夺走,再转给另一个私人,而仅仅因为后者能使这块地产出更高的赋税收入,这是违背美国宪政精神的。
凯洛案是自Midkiff案以来上诉到美高院的第一宗“有偿征用”案,因此,凯洛立刻成了各方大讨论的焦点,原告和被告两边都吸引了为数众多的支持者。在这起案子里,有40份中立观察方的书面意见被归入卷宗,其中25份支持原告。凯洛的支持者有大法官自由论者协会、美国有色人种协进会、美国退休者协会和由马丁·路德·金创始的南方基督教领导会议等(NAACP/AARP/SCLS)。后三个团体还联名签署了一份书面意见,抗议“有偿征用”经常被用来对付一些政治上的弱势群体,尤其是少数族群和老年人。
[编辑] 口头辩论
这起案子于2005年2月22日在美高院进行口头辩论,辩论会由大法官Sandra Day O'Connor主持。由于首席大法官威廉·伦奎斯特因病休养在家,大法官John Paul Stevens未能从佛罗里达及时赶回华盛顿,因此,这一天的口头辩论只有7位大法官听证。两位缺席的大法官事后通过阅读简报和口头辩论笔录,参与了本案的判决。
在口头辩论期间,有几位大法官所提的问题,已经预示出他们对本案所持的最终立场。例如,大法官Scalia认为支持市政当局将破坏“私用和公用之间的差别”,他声称,仅仅附带性地为州政府带来利益的私用,“不足以证明动用征用权是正当的。”
[编辑] 判决
[编辑] 判决意见
2005年6月23日,最高法院以5比4的微弱多数,对本案作出判决,支持新伦敦市 市政府。组成多数方的五位大法官分别是John Paul Stevens、Anthony Kennedy、David Souter、Stephen Breyer 和 Ruth Bader Ginsburg。判决意见由大法官John Paul Stevens执笔。另外,大法官Kennedy也同时出具一份配合意见,更详细地补充说明了对经济开发的司法审查标准。Stevens在意见书中称,在有关土地使用的决议里,应给予当地政府较宽的自由裁量权:“该市确已非常仔细地制定了开发计划,相信能给社区带来可评估的利益,这个利益包括,但不局限于,提供就业机会和增加税收”。
[编辑] 反对意见
四位持反对意见者分别是首席大法官威廉·伦奎斯特、大法官Sandra Day O'Connor、Antonin Scalia 和 Clarence Thomas。大法官Sandra Day O'Connor主写了反方意见,她认为以反罗宾汉的方式——劫贫济富——动用该项权力,后果不是下不为例,而是相反:“现在,任何私有财产都有可能因另一私方利益而被拿走,这个判决的后续效应将不是偶发事件, 受益者很可能是那些拥有不对等(比诸受害者)政治影响和权力的公民,比如大公司和大开发商等”。她论争说,这一判决模糊了“财产在私用和公用之间的区别——这等于是在把‘为了公共使用”这些字眼从第五条修正案的条款里有效地【剔除】”。
大法官Clarence Thomas也单独写了一份原意主义的反对意见,他说,这份判决所援引的依据是有缺陷的,而且“这个判决在对宪法的解释上犯了很严重的错误”。他谴责多数方把第五条修正案里的“公共使用”替换成了在意义上有着很大差别的“公共目的”:“正是这种措词上的变换,使得法庭认为,尽管这是违反常识的,一个投入巨资的城市重建项目(陈述的开发目的含糊地承诺将带来新的就业机会和增加税收,但同时也是辉瑞公司所喜见的),属于‘公共使用’”。Thomas还援引了NAACP/AARP/SCLS合作代表三种低收入阶层反对新泽西重建时所写的一份报告里的话:“损失将不成比例地落在弱势群体身上。”
[编辑] 后续发展
判决出来后,有多位原告表示他们将进一步寻求其他手段,继续抗议对他们家园的攫夺。然而,在高院作出判决后,凯洛和其他几位居民剩下的唯一合法途径只可能是在市政府赔付时,力争一个公平的要价——该市已准备花160万美元收购15户的地产,有关官员之后宣布了将征收的土地租回5年的计划。最终市政府同意将凯洛的房子移到市中心,并且支付了数额巨大的赔偿[1]。
由于招商引资失败,凯洛案判决两年之后,市政府征用的土地上并未进行任何开发。2009年11月,在征收规划重镇局重要角色的辉瑞公司宣布关闭在新伦敦市的研发中心[2]。
凯洛案已经尘埃落定,然而它所造成的广泛影响仍能继续看到。在判决之前,美国有八个州(阿肯色州, 佛罗里达州, 伊利诺斯州, 肯塔基州, 缅因州, 蒙大拿州, 南卡罗莱纳州和华盛顿州)明确禁止以发展经济为由(清除‘枯萎’城区例外)使用“征用权”。截至2007年,美国50州中的42州通过了法律来对以经济发展为目的的土地征用进行限制,其中21州明确禁止了类似凯洛案判决的财产征用。2005年7月4日,华盛顿时代周刊声称,这一判决已经激励了纽泽西州Newark和 密苏里州Arnold两地的官员有所行动。一份对超过1万起依其申述为“滥用”征用权的个案进行研究的报告证实,正如反方意见所预言的,低收入少数族群将最有可能领教凯洛案里所显示出来的权力,其他可能受影响的还包括住在码头区或旧城区等的中下阶层居民。
[编辑] 国会的反应
2005年6月27日,得克萨斯州参议员John Cornyn (R-TX)动议通过立法(S.B. 1313)限制以发展经济为由行使征用权,他建议:(1)若证明“公用”的理由仅止发展经济这一项,则应禁止联邦政府行使征用权;(2)对州和地方政府“使用联邦基金”行使征用权时应强行施加同样的限制。议案随后由众议院议员Dennis Rehberg (R-MO)、Tom DeLay (R-TX)、John Conyers (D-MI) 和 James Sensenbrenner (R-WI)提交美国众议院。由于大多数小规模的有偿征收(比如凯洛案中的那些),其决议和资金运作完全由当地政府掌控,因此即使议案得以通过成为法律,也不清楚将能产生多大的作用。此提案于2005年6月27日被提交参议院法务委员会讨论。
美国众议院少数党领袖南希·佩洛西认为议案本身有违政权分离原则,而且将会要求对第五条修正案再次进行修改。她对判决本身没有发表意见。
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelo_v._City_of_New_London
Kelo v. City of New London, 545 U.S. 469 (2005)[1] was a case decided by the Supreme Court of the United States involving the use of eminent domain to transfer land from one private owner to another to further economic development. The case arose from the condemnation by New London, Connecticut, of privately owned real property so that it could be used as part of a comprehensive redevelopment plan. The Court held in a 5–4 decision that the general benefits a community enjoyed from economic growth qualified such redevelopment plans as a permissible "public use" under the Takings Clause of the Fifth Amendment.
Contents [hide]
1 History
2 The case
2.1 The case in the Connecticut courts
2.2 Certiorari to the U.S. Supreme Court
2.3 Oral argument
3 The Court's decision
3.1 Majority and concurring opinions
3.2 Dissenting opinions
4 Subsequent history
5 Public reaction and the wider effect of Kelo
5.1 Public reaction
5.2 Presidential reaction
5.3 Congressional reaction
5.4 Scholarly Reaction
5.5 State legislation following Kelo v. City of New London
5.5.1 Arizona
5.5.2 New Hampshire
5.5.3 California
5.5.4 Florida
5.5.5 Iowa
5.5.6 Ohio
5.5.7 Michigan
5.5.8 Wisconsin
6 See also
7 References
8 Further reading
9 External links
[edit] History
The case was appealed from a decision by the Supreme Court of Connecticut in favor of the City of New London. The state supreme court held that the use of eminent domain for economic development did not violate the public use clauses of the state and federal constitutions. The court held that if an economic project creates new jobs, increases tax and other city revenues, and revitalizes a depressed urban area (even if not blighted), then the project qualifies as a public use. The court also ruled constitutional the government delegation of its eminent domain power to a private entity.
The United States Supreme Court granted certiorari to consider questions raised in Berman v. Parker, 348 U.S. 26 (1954) and later in Hawaii Housing Authority v. Midkiff, 467 U.S. 229 (1984).[2] Namely, whether a "public purpose" constitutes a "public use" for purposes of the Fifth Amendment's Taking Clause: "nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation". Specifically, does the Fifth Amendment, applicable to the states through the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment (see main article: Incorporation of the Bill of Rights), protect landowners from takings for economic development, rather than, as in Berman, for the elimination of slums and blight?
The decision was widely criticized.[3] Many of the public viewed the outcome as a gross violation of property rights and as a misinterpretation of the Fifth Amendment, the consequence of which would be to benefit large corporations at the expense of individual homeowners and local communities. Some in the legal profession construe the public's outrage as being directed not at the interpretation of legal principles involved in the case, but at the broad moral principles of the general outcome.[4] "Federal appeals court judge Richard Posner wrote that the political response to Kelo is "evidence of [the decision's] pragmatic soundness." Judicial action would be unnecessary, Posner suggested, because the political process could take care of the problem."[5][6]
In November 2009, Pfizer, the beneficiary of the eminent domain action, announced that it would leave New London.[7]
[edit] The case
[edit] The case in the Connecticut courts
The owners sued the city in Connecticut courts, arguing that the city had misused its eminent domain power. The power of eminent domain is limited by the Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments to the United States Constitution. The Fifth Amendment, which restricts the actions of the federal government, says in part that "private property [shall not] be taken for public use, without just compensation"; under Section 1 of the Fourteenth Amendment, this limitation is also imposed on the actions of U.S. state and local governments. Kelo and the other appellants argued that economic development, the stated purpose of the taking and subsequent transfer of the land to the New London Development Corporation, did not qualify as public use. The Connecticut Supreme Court heard arguments on Dec. 2, 2002. The state court issued its decision (268 Conn. 1, SC16742) on March 9, 2004, siding with the city in a 4-3 decision, with the majority opinion authored by Justice Flemming L. Norcott, Jr., joined by Justices David M. Borden, Richard N. Palmer and Christine Vertefeuille[8]. Justice Peter T. Zarella wrote the dissent, joined by Chief Justice William J. Sullivan and Justice Joette Katz[9].
[edit] Certiorari to the U.S. Supreme Court
This case was the first major eminent domain case heard at the Supreme Court since 1984. In that time, states and municipalities had slowly extended their use of eminent domain, frequently to include economic development purposes where applicable. In the Kelo case, there was an additional twist in that the development corporation was ostensibly a private entity; thus the plaintiffs argued that it was not constitutional for the government to take private property from one individual or corporation and give it to another, if the government was simply doing so because the repossession would put the property to a use that would generate higher tax revenue.
The first eminent domain case since Midkiff to reach the Supreme Court, Kelo became the focus of vigorous discussion and attracted numerous supporters on both sides. Some 40 amicus curiae briefs were filed in the case, 25 on behalf of the petitioners. Suzette Kelo's supporters ranged from the libertarian Institute for Justice (the lead lawyers) to the NAACP, AARP, the late Martin Luther King's Southern Christian Leadership Conference and South Jersey Legal Services. The latter groups signed an amicus brief arguing that eminent domain has often been used against politically weak communities with high concentrations of minorities and elderly.
[edit] Oral argument
The case was argued on February 22, 2005. The case was heard by only seven members of the court with Associate Justice Sandra Day O'Connor presiding, as Chief Justice William Rehnquist was recuperating from medical treatment at home and Associate Justice John Paul Stevens was delayed on his return to Washington from Florida; both absent Justices read the briefs and oral argument transcripts and participated in the case decision.
During oral arguments, several of the Justices asked questions that forecast their ultimate positions on the case. Justice Antonin Scalia, for example, suggested that a ruling in favor of the city would destroy "the distinction between private use and public use," asserting that a private use which provided merely incidental benefits to the state was "not enough to justify use of the condemnation power."
[edit] The Court's decision
[edit] Majority and concurring opinions
On June 23, 2005, the Supreme Court, in a 5–4 decision, ruled in favor of the City of New London. Justice John Paul Stevens wrote the majority opinion, joined by Justices Anthony Kennedy, David Souter, Ruth Bader Ginsburg and Stephen Breyer. Justice Kennedy wrote a concurring opinion setting out a more detailed standard for judicial review of economic development takings than that found in Stevens's majority opinion. In so doing, Justice Kennedy contributed to the Court's trend of turning minimum scrutiny—the idea that government policy need only bear a rational relation to a legitimate government purpose—into a fact-based test.
In Hawaii Housing Authority v. Midkiff, 467 US 229 (1984), the Court had said that the government purpose under minimum scrutiny need only be "conceivable." In two 1996 cases the Court clarified that concept. In Romer v. Evans, 517 US 620, the Court said that the government purpose must be "independent and legitimate." And in U.S. v. Virginia, 518 U.S. 515, the Court said the government purpose "must be genuine, not hypothesized or invented post hoc in response to litigation." Thus, the Court made it clear that, in the scrutiny regime established in West Coast Hotel v. Parrish, 300 US 379 (1937), government purpose is a question of fact for the trier of fact.
Kennedy fleshed out this doctrine in his Kelo concurring opinion; he sets out a program of civil discovery in the context of a challenge to an assertion of government purpose. However, he does not explicitly limit these criteria to eminent domain, nor to minimum scrutiny, suggesting that they may be generalized to all health and welfare regulation in the scrutiny regime. Because Kennedy signed on to the Court's majority opinion, his concurrence is not binding on lower courts. He wrote:
A court confronted with a plausible accusation of impermissible favoritism to private parties should [conduct]….a careful and extensive inquiry into ‘whether, in fact, the development plan [chronology] [1.] is of primary benefit to . . . the developer…, and private businesses which may eventually locate in the plan area…, [2.] and in that regard, only of incidental benefit to the city…[.]’" Kennedy is also interested in facts of the chronology which show, with respect to government, [3.] awareness of…depressed economic condition and evidence corroborating the validity of this concern…, [4.] the substantial commitment of public funds…before most of the private beneficiaries were known…, [5.] evidence that [government] reviewed a variety of development plans…[,] [6.] [government] chose a private developer from a group of applicants rather than picking out a particular transferee beforehand and… [7.] other private beneficiaries of the project [were]…unknown [to government] because the…space proposed to be built [had] not yet been rented….
Kelo v. City of New London did not establish entirely new law concerning eminent domain. Although the decision was controversial, it was not the first time “public use” had been interpreted by the Supreme Court as “public purpose.” In the majority opinion, Justice Stevens wrote the "Court long ago rejected any literal requirement that condemned property be put into use for the general public" (545 U.S. 469). Thus precedent played an important role in the 5-4 decision of the Supreme Court. The Fifth Amendment was interpreted the same way as in Midkiff (467 U.S. 229) and other earlier eminent domain cases.
[edit] Dissenting opinions
On June 25, 2005, Justice Sandra Day O'Connor wrote the principal dissent, joined by Chief Justice William Rehnquist, Justice Antonin Scalia and Justice Clarence Thomas. The dissenting opinion suggested that the use of this taking power in a reverse Robin Hood fashion— take from the poor, give to the rich— would become the norm, not the exception:
“ Any property may now be taken for the benefit of another private party, but the fallout from this decision will not be random. The beneficiaries are likely to be those citizens with disproportionate influence and power in the political process, including large corporations and development firms. ”
She argued that the decision eliminates "any distinction between private and public use of property — and thereby effectively delete[s] the words 'for public use' from the Takings Clause of the Fifth Amendment." 125 S.Ct. 2655, 2671
Clarence Thomas also penned a separate originalist dissent, in which he argued that the precedents the court's decision relied upon were flawed and that "something has gone seriously awry with this Court's interpretation of the Constitution." He accuses the majority of replacing the Fifth Amendment's "Public Use" clause with a very different "public purpose" test:
“ This deferential shift in phraseology enables the Court to hold, against all common sense, that a costly urban-renewal project whose stated purpose is a vague promise of new jobs and increased tax revenue, but which is also suspiciously agreeable to the Pfizer Corporation, is for a 'public use.' ”
Thomas also made use of the argument presented in the NAACP/AARP/SCLC/SJLS amicus brief on behalf of three low-income residents' groups fighting redevelopment in New Jersey, noting:
“ Allowing the government to take property solely for public purposes is bad enough, but extending the concept of public purpose to encompass any economically beneficial goal guarantees that these losses will fall disproportionately on poor communities. Those communities are not only systematically less likely to put their lands to the highest and best social use, but are also the least politically powerful.[10] ”
[edit] Subsequent history
One of the few remaining houses in the Fort Trumbull neighborhood, September 1, 2006. Underneath the white paint can just barely be read the words "Thank you Gov. Rell for your support" and the web URLs of two organizations protesting over-use of eminent domain, Castle Coalition and Institute for Justice.
The same house, June 10, 2007. The "thank you" is still visible, but the some windows are broken and others are boarded up, and "No Trespassing" has been spray-painted on it, as well as the URLs being obscured by spray paint.
Following the decision, many of the plaintiffs expressed an intent to find other means by which they could continue contesting the seizure of their homes.[11] Soon after the decision, city officials announced plans to charge the residents of the homes for back rent for the five years since condemnation procedures began. The city contends that the residents have been on city property for those five years and owe tens of thousands of dollars of rent. The case was finally resolved when the City agreed to move Kelo's house to a new location. The controversy was eventually settled when the city paid substantial additional compensation to the homeowners.[12] Three years after the Supreme Court case was decided, the Kelo house was dedicated after being relocated to a site close to downtown New London.[13] As of September 2009[update], the original Kelo property is now a vacant lot, generating no tax revenue for the city.[14] A group of New London residents formed a local political party, One New London, to combat the takings. While unsuccessful in gaining control of the New London City Council, they gained two seats and continue to try to gain a majority in the New London City Council to rectify the Ft. Trumbull takings. In June 2006 Governor M. Jodi Rell intervened with New London city officials, proposing the homeowners involved in the suit be deeded property in the Fort Trumbull neighborhood so they may retain their homes.[15] But two years after the Supreme Court decision nothing is happening on the ground and it appears doubtful whether the city's redevelopment project will proceed.
In September 2009, the land where Susette Kelo's home had once stood was an empty lot, and the promised 3,169 new jobs and $1.2 million a year in tax revenues had not materialized.[14] In November 2009, Pfizer announced it would close its New London research facility.[16]
After the Pfizer announcement, the San Francisco Chronicle in its lead editorial called the Kelo decision infamous:
The well-laid plans of redevelopers, however, did not pan out. The land where Suzette Kelo's little pink house once stood remains undeveloped. The proposed hotel-retail-condo "urban village" has not been built. And earlier this month, Pfizer Inc. announced that it is closing the $350 million research center in New London that was the anchor for the New London redevelopment plan, and will be relocating some 1,500 jobs.[17]
The Chronicle editorial quoted from the New York Times:
"They stole our home for economic development," ousted homeowner Michael Cristofaro told the New York Times. "It was all for Pfizer, and now they get up and walk away."
[edit] Public reaction and the wider effect of Kelo
Public reaction to the decision was not favorable and, as a result, many states changed their eminent domain laws. Prior to the Kelo decision, only eight states specifically prohibited the use of eminent domain for economic development except to eliminate blight. Since the decision, forty-three states have amended their eminent domain laws.[18]
[edit] Public reaction
Opposition to the ruling was stated by popular groups such as AARP, the NAACP, the Libertarian Party and the Institute for Justice. Many owners of family farms also disapproved of the ruling, as they saw it as an avenue by which cities could seize their land for private developments. The grassroots lobbying group American Conservative Union and The New Media Journal described the decision as judicial activism, as did numerous blogs.[19][20]
The New York Times editorial board agreed with the ruling, calling it "a welcome vindication of cities' ability to act in the public interest."[21] The Washington Post's editorial board also agreed with the ruling, writing, "... the court's decision was correct... New London's plan, whatever its flaws, is intended to help develop a city that has been in economic decline for many years."[22]
[edit] Presidential reaction
On June 23, 2006, the first anniversary of the original decision, President George W. Bush issued an executive order[23] instructing the federal government to use eminent domain
“ ...for the purpose of benefiting the general public and not merely for the purpose of advancing the economic interest of private parties to be given ownership or use of the property taken.[24] ”
However, since eminent domain is often exercised by local and state governments, the presidential order may thus have little overall effect.
[edit] Congressional reaction
On June 27, 2005, Senator John Cornyn (R-TX) introduced legislation, the "Protection of Homes, Small Businesses and Private Property Act of 2005" (S.B. 1313), to limit the use of eminent domain for economic development. The operative language
prohibits the federal government from exercising eminent domain power if the only justifying "public use" is economic development; and
imposes the same limit on state and local government exercise of eminent domain power "through the use of Federal funds."
Similar bills have subsequently been put forth in the House of Representatives by Congressman Dennis Rehberg (R-MT), Tom DeLay (R-TX) and John Conyers (D-MI) with James Sensenbrenner (R-WI). As some small-scale eminent domain condemnations (including notably those in the Kelo case) can be local in both decision and funding, it is unclear how much of an effect the bill would have if it passed into law.[25]
[edit] Scholarly Reaction
In 2008, land use Professor Daniel R. Mandelker argued that the public backlash against Kelo is rooted in the historical deficiencies of urban renewal legislation.[26] In particular, the article cited the failure to incorporate land use planning and a precise definition of blight in urban renewal legislation as problematic. In 2009, Professor Edward J. Lopez of San Jose State University studied passed laws and found that states with more economic freedom, greater value of new housing construction, and less racial and income inequality were more likely to have enacted stronger restrictions sooner.[27]
[edit] State legislation following Kelo v. City of New London
Prior to Kelo only eight states specifically prohibited the use of eminent domain for economic development except to eliminate blight: Arkansas, Florida, Illinois, Kentucky, Maine, Montana, South Carolina and Washington.[28] By July 2007, 42 states had enacted some type of reform legislation in response to the Kelo decision. Of those 42 states, 21 enacted laws that severely inhibited the takings allowed by the Kelo decision, while the rest enacted laws that place some limits on the power of municipalities to invoke eminent domain for economic development. The remaining eight states have not passed laws to limit the power of eminent domain for economic development.[27][29]
[edit] Arizona
Proposition 207, the Private Property Rights Protection Act, passed in 2006.
[edit] New Hampshire
Subsequent to this decision, there was widespread outrage across the country. California developer and libertarian Logan Darrow Clements scooped a similar proposal by New Hampshire libertarians to seize Justice Souter's 'blighted' home in Weare, New Hampshire, via eminent domain in order to build a "Lost Liberty Hotel" which he said would feature a "Just Desserts Cafe". Officials of the Libertarian Party of New Hampshire (LPNH) and the Coalition of New Hampshire Taxpayers had been eyeing the Justice's property to build a Constitution Park. A few weeks later, LPNH Vice-Chair Mike Lorrey discovered that Justice Breyer owned an extensive vacation estate in Plainfield, NH, and announced on the New Hampshire Public Radio show The Exchange focusing on eminent domain that LPNH would be pursuing their Constitution Park concept with Breyer's property in mind. Lorrey and Clements both advocated an amendment to New Hampshire's Constitution limiting eminent domain, which passed New Hampshire's legislature on March 24, 2006. The text of the amendment is as follows: "No part of a person's property shall be taken by eminent domain and transferred, directly or indirectly, to another person if the taking is for the purpose of private development or other private use of the property."[30] It passed by an overwhelming margin in the 2006 general election.[31]
[edit] California
Proposition 90 failed in the November 2006 election.[32] The initiative also included language requiring that government pay financial compensation to any property owners who could successfully argue that regulation caused them significant economic loss. Subsequently, Proposition 99 passed in the June 2008 election. It amends the state constitution to prohibit (subject to some exceptions):
“ state and local governments from using eminent domain to acquire an owner-occupied residence [if the owner has occupied the residence for at least one year], as defined, for conveyance to a private person or business entity. ”
[edit] Florida
Florida passed a 2006 ballot measure amending the Florida Constitution to restrict use of eminent domain.[33] The amendment says in part:
“ Private property taken by eminent domain [...] may not be conveyed to a natural person or private entity except as provided by general law passed by a three-fifths vote of the membership of each house of the Legislature. ”
[edit] Iowa
The Iowa Legislature passed a 2006 bill restricting the use of eminent domain for economic development. Gov. Tom Vilsack (D) vetoed the bill,[34] prompting the first special session of the Iowa Legislature in more than 40 years. The veto was overridden by votes of 90-8 in the Iowa House and 41-8 in the Iowa Senate.[35]
[edit] Ohio
An attempted use of eminent domain was brought before the Ohio supreme court in Norwood, Ohio v. Horney. The Supreme Court of Ohio held in favor of the property owners.
[edit] Michigan
Michigan passed a restriction on the use of eminent domain in November 2006, Proposition 4, 80% to 20%.[36] The text of the ballot initiative was as follows:[37]
A proposed constitutional amendment to prohibit government from taking private property by eminent domain for certain private purposes
The proposed constitutional amendment would:
Prohibit government from taking private property for transfer to another private individual or business for purposes of economic development or increasing tax revenue.
Provide that if an individual's principal residence is taken by government for public use, the individual must be paid at least 125% of property’s fair market value.
Require government that takes a private property to demonstrate that the taking is for a public use; if taken to eliminate blight, require a higher standard of proof to demonstrate that the taking of that property is for a public use.
Preserve existing rights of property owners.
[edit] Wisconsin
March 29, 2006 the governor signed into law 2005 Wisconsin Act 233, which prohibits condemnation of nonblighted property for transfer to a private entity. Nonblighted property is defined by a list of conditions that may make the property a detriment to the "public health, safety, or welfare." Two days earlier the governor signed into law 2005 Wisconsin Act 208, which creates procedures designed to protect property owners including public notice and public hearing requirements.[38]
The Wisconsin law has been criticized as one having little or no real protection for property owners because it provides protection against property condemnation for economic development but does allow property condemnation under a broadly defined description of blighted.[39][40]
Saturday, November 28, 2009
给土地财政依赖症开个药方
2009年11月20日 00:00:00 来源:新华网
http://news.xinhuanet.com/comments/2009-11/20/content_12491788.htm
日益高涨的土地价格一次性全部摊入房地产开发的成本,成为我国近年房价居高不下的重要原因之一。业内人士建议,解决居民住房难问题关键要在土地使用税征收、拍卖导向、土地供应量政策方面做出调整。(11月19日《经济参考报》)
地方政府过度依赖“土地财政”的原因何在?笔者认为主要是地方政府可用财力与其日益增多的事权不相匹配,要消除地方政府对土地财政的“依赖症”,微观上的政策调整虽然必要,但更主要的还在于宏观政策上的调整。如果在财税分配制度上做出重大调整,使地方政府拥有更多与事权匹配的可支配财力,地方财政就会走出困境,从而在一定程度上弱化地方政府高价卖地的冲动。
自1994年我国实施“分税制”以来,关税、消费税、从中央企业征收的所得税等大宗税源都划归中央财政收入,从金融保险等部门以外征收的营业税和一些征管难度大的零散税源则留给了地方财政。此外,增值税、资源税、证券交易税、企业所得税等虽属中央与地方共享税,但大多是中央得大头、地方得小头。农业税的取消在惠及亿万农民的同时,也不可避免减少了县乡两级财政收入。一些地方政府在财力上捉襟见肘,有的甚至负债累累,无疑是催生“土地财政”的一大原因。
党的十七大报告中明确提出,要健全中央和地方财力与事权相匹配的体制;全国人大财经委员会也提出要拿出“财力与事权匹配”的财税体制改革初步方案。意味着通过分税制的调整来改善中央与地方的财政关系,增加地方政府税收分配比例,将有效壮大地方政府财力。当然,出于应对国际金融危机的挑战,“分税制”调整在时机上可能受到一定的影响。但随着经济逐渐回暖、财政收入开始回升,这项调整是否应该尽早提上议事日程,并尽快付诸实施呢?
倘能如此,不仅有助于遏制地方政府高价卖地的冲动,也会使国家遏制房地产商囤地、炒地的一系列政策法规减少执行阻力。由此可望降低房产开发成本,使房价尽快地回归到合理的价位,解决高房价带来的民生难题。
http://news.xinhuanet.com/comments/2009-11/20/content_12491788.htm
日益高涨的土地价格一次性全部摊入房地产开发的成本,成为我国近年房价居高不下的重要原因之一。业内人士建议,解决居民住房难问题关键要在土地使用税征收、拍卖导向、土地供应量政策方面做出调整。(11月19日《经济参考报》)
地方政府过度依赖“土地财政”的原因何在?笔者认为主要是地方政府可用财力与其日益增多的事权不相匹配,要消除地方政府对土地财政的“依赖症”,微观上的政策调整虽然必要,但更主要的还在于宏观政策上的调整。如果在财税分配制度上做出重大调整,使地方政府拥有更多与事权匹配的可支配财力,地方财政就会走出困境,从而在一定程度上弱化地方政府高价卖地的冲动。
自1994年我国实施“分税制”以来,关税、消费税、从中央企业征收的所得税等大宗税源都划归中央财政收入,从金融保险等部门以外征收的营业税和一些征管难度大的零散税源则留给了地方财政。此外,增值税、资源税、证券交易税、企业所得税等虽属中央与地方共享税,但大多是中央得大头、地方得小头。农业税的取消在惠及亿万农民的同时,也不可避免减少了县乡两级财政收入。一些地方政府在财力上捉襟见肘,有的甚至负债累累,无疑是催生“土地财政”的一大原因。
党的十七大报告中明确提出,要健全中央和地方财力与事权相匹配的体制;全国人大财经委员会也提出要拿出“财力与事权匹配”的财税体制改革初步方案。意味着通过分税制的调整来改善中央与地方的财政关系,增加地方政府税收分配比例,将有效壮大地方政府财力。当然,出于应对国际金融危机的挑战,“分税制”调整在时机上可能受到一定的影响。但随着经济逐渐回暖、财政收入开始回升,这项调整是否应该尽早提上议事日程,并尽快付诸实施呢?
倘能如此,不仅有助于遏制地方政府高价卖地的冲动,也会使国家遏制房地产商囤地、炒地的一系列政策法规减少执行阻力。由此可望降低房产开发成本,使房价尽快地回归到合理的价位,解决高房价带来的民生难题。
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